West and Central Asia 7.3

West and Central Asia

500 BCE–1980 CE

TOPIC 7.3 Interactions Within and Across Cultures in West and Central Asian Art

The arts of West and Central Asia play a key role in the history of world art. Vast cultural interchanges have occurred in these lands that link the European and Asian peoples.

The Heart of the Silk Route

Historical cultures of West and Central Asia reside in a vast area that includes the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant, Anatolia, Greater Iran, Central Asia, Inner Asia, and Himalayan Asia. These regions have had shifting political boundaries throughout their histories and include lands associated with the former Soviet Union and modern China. They form the heart of the ancient Silk Route.  This connected the Greco-Roman world with China and India.

An Exchange of Cultural Ideas

Arts attest to the transmission and influence of cultural ideas, such as Islam and Buddhism. It also includes cultural art forms, such as Hellenistic architecture, Buddhist sculpture, chinoiserie (in Persian art), and ceramic-tile decoration.

Cross-cultural comparisons with the arts of these regions may be made most readily to the arts of the ancient Mediterranean; medieval Europe; and South, East, and Southeast. The arts of West and Central Asia had great international impact through trade.

The Domination of Textiles

Textiles were perhaps the most important art form in these regions and dominated much of the international trade between Europe and Asia.

Other Works

Islamic metalworks, including examples with Christian subject matter, were created for trade in the regions bordering the Mediterranean.

Ceramics were another important trade item, particularly the Iznik wares created in TurkeyAsia.

West Asian art finds its greatest source of refinement and international influence in the Persianate arts from the Timurid and Safavid dynasties of Iran, which influenced the Ottoman arts of Turkey and the Mughal arts of India. Styles of art in Central Asia can be divided into Persianate Islamic styles, which maintain developments made in West Asian art, and Indian inspired styles, which are characterized by the idealized figural art traditions of South Asia.

Figural Art

Use of figural art in religious contexts varies among traditions, whereas figural art is common in secular art forms across West and Central Asia.

Figural art is a primary form of visual communication in Buddhist communities in Central Asia, as it is across Asia. Figural imagery is used to depict Buddha and various attendants, teachers, practitioners, and deities. This is an iconic culture, and the presence of invoked figural imagery is important to Buddhist practices. These figures may be venerated in shrine settings, may inhabit conceptual landscapes and palaces of ideal Buddhist worlds, may be found in mandalas, or may be depicted in paintings.

Sacred Versus Secular Context

Islamic art that is created for religious purposes does not contain figural imagery. Mosque architecture is decorated with non figural imagery, including calligraphy, geometric, and vegetal forms. Manuscripts or objects containing sacred texts may contain calligraphy, illumination, or geometric and vegetal decoration, but should not contain figural imagery.

Figural art is an important subject of Islamic art in West and Central Asia. Islamic cultures draw a clear distinction between sacred and secular contexts. Figural imagery abounds in secular works, such as decorative arts and manuscript painting, which often depict sociological types, such as hunters or courtiers, or narrative subjects, such as the ancient kings and heroes of the Persian Shahnama.

Religious ideas or content are sometimes carried over into secular art forms and may be illustrated when they become the subject of courtly or popular literature and poetry. For example, the prophet Moses might be illustrated in the Khamsa of Nizami. Moses would not be illustrated, however, in the holy Qur’an.

 

(7) 181. Petra, Jordan.

Nabataean Ptolemaic 400 BCE – 100 CE. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman (Early Empire)

Learning Objectives: Hellenistic architecture (diffusion)

Themes:

Funerary
Appropriation
Status
Cross-cultural
Architecture

Petra is famous for its rock cut tombs built in what today is Jordan.  Here there are 800 tombs, and 3000 architectural elements carved from sandstone and limestone. Located in a rocky basin, Petra is accessed by a deep road called Siq. Geographically, the site is located 150 miles south of both Amman, the capital of Jordan and Jerusalem.

Background History

The Nabatean people had settled in southern Jordan by 312 BCE.  Ideally placed at the Northern end of the Caravan Route that ran from South Arabia to the Mediterranean, the people were great traders during the late Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods. The commerce of luxury products such as frankincense and myrrh, that was burned at alters, as well as spice, contributed to a wealthy society.

The Romans invaded during 106 CE and changed the name to Arabia Petrae. Here, they ruled for 250 years, until an earthquake destroyed the buildings. The Byzantines would take control later and govern for another 300 years. Petra was mostly abandoned however, by the eight century CE.

Referred to as the Rose City, because of the color the stone appears, Petra was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 1985.

Function

Initially, historians thought Petra was a large necropolis or cemetery. The architecture proves otherwise, uncovering what was once an active and well-developed metropolis.

With talented architects the community transformed the rocky desert into a great city through innovative constructions. Engineers turned the dusty land into a garden oasis by using an elaborate water system through damming, terracing, and irrigation. This was used to harvest, store, and distribute water collected during the rainy season.

The Treasury Façade

The most famous building is the Treasury (or Khazneh). It measures 249 meters wide by 38.77 meters high.

The façade contains both Hellenistic, and Near Eastern architecture. As the city grew it was influenced by trade and culture of Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines.

Architectural features include broken pediment with two obelisks above reaching into the rocks. There are ornate Corinthian columns throughout. There is also a circular building at the top called a tholos.

Sculptural works on the lower level include the twin Greek gods Castor and Pollux, known to protect both travelers and the dead.  The upper levels house Amazons and Victories around an unidentified female goddess.

Other symbols include eagles, vines, vegetation, and vases with large handles, known as kantharoi. The rosettes are associated with the Ancient Near East.

Fun fact: The Treasury at Petra appeared in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.

Great Temple

The Great Temple at Petra is the largest freestanding building that has been excavated at the site. The temple precinct has a formal entry or Propylaeum, a Lower Temenos, or sacred enclosure. To access the Upper Temenos, there are two sets of stairs. These are located both east and west.

The temple continued to thrive well into the Roman period. It stopped being used following the devastating earthquake that struck Petra in 363 CE.

The Painted Biclinium

This monument is named for the benches that are carved out along two walls. The painting on the ceiling of the alcove, a rare glimpse of this medium in Nabatean culture, is an intricate creation of grapevines, flowers, birds, and cherubs. The interior also has drawings of Roman gods, including the son of Venus, Cupid.

 

(7) 182. Buddha.

Gandharan. 400-80 CE (destroyed 2001). Buddhist.

Learning Objective: Buddhism in the Middle East

Themes:

Pilgrimage
Place of worship
Devotional object
Site-specific
Cross-cultural
Deities

Buddha in Bamiyan, Afghanistan was one of two rock cut Buddhas fashioned with plaster, polychrome, and paint.  The largest stood 150 feet tall. They were destroyed in 2001.

The main bodies were hewn directly from the sandstone cliffs. The stone was in situ and living rock. The details were modeled in mud, mixed with straw, coated with stucco. Gold and fine jewels were added These were gifts and offerings from pilgrims.

The niches are shaped like mandorlas to emphasize the statues. This also acts as protection from the elements such as rain, wind, and sun.

The works were an appropriation of Greek and Asian artforms. The Asian influence could be seen in the body form, facial features, and size. The Greek influence was present in the drapery and folds.

There is no knowledge of patron, artist, or details of the commission.

Function

• Important site of pilgrimage for centuries and a stop on the Silk Roads
• Veneration/religious art

Content

The larger Buddha was painted with a red robe and depicted as Vairocana Buddha who embodies all wisdom. This type of Buddha must be depicted as grand in size as it is a very masculine form of Buddha.

The smaller Buddha was painted with a blue robe and known as a historical Buddha. It may represent female aspects and as such is smaller.

The cave galleries are painted with wall paintings and images of Buddha. Pilgrims can walk through these caves.

Context

 Gandharan was a diverse culture that emerged in Afghanistan. It was influenced by Alexander the Great’s Greek empire, Buddhism from the Silk Roads, and Indian kingdoms.

Bamiyan was a caravanserai, a “highway town” of sorts for travelers on the Silk Road that connected China to the Mediterranean. The area contained numerous Buddhist sanctuaries. By the 7^th century, there were 5,000 plus monks and pilgrims in Bamiyan.

Buddhism is not location-specific, focuses on an afterlife, and is not class-specific. it can be worshipped anywhere and spread easily among traders. Mahayana Buddhism spread due to Chinese expansion westward. It developed a concept of Buddha as an incarnation of wisdom and truth. This meant Buddha was literally larger than life. As such, monumental statuary of Buddha emerged.

Timeline

In 1221 CE, Ghengis Khan conquered this region of Afghanistan killing everyone but left the sculptures

Mughal ruler Aurangzeb, who was Muslim, tried to destroy the statues in the 17^th century.

In March 2001 the Taliban, who determined these works were idols, dynamited and destroyed them.

 

(7) 185. Dome of the Rock.

 Islamic (Umayyad). 691-692 CE with multiple renovations. Islamic.

Learning Objective: Islamic Shrine

Theme:

Appropriation
Religion
Text and image
Site-specific
Pilgrimage
Architecture
Cross-cultural
Political
Propaganda
Power

Dome of the Rock sits on the highest point of old Jerusalem, Palestine. It is made from stone masonry with a wooden roof decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome. The dome measures 67 feet on each side, plus 67 feet for the width of dome, and the same measurement for the height of drum.

 

 

The domed wooden octagonal building is centrally planned with two ambulatories that encircle the stone in the middle. The first ambulatory has 16 columns in its arcade. The second ambulatory has 24 columns in its arcade. This area is decorated with mosaic inscriptions from the Quran.

Notice in the arcade that the voussoirs are alternating colors. This is typical for Islam.

Entering Paradise

In Islam, there are 8 levels of Paradise.

8 x 2 = 16

8 x 3 = 24

Cross Cultural Influences

At the time Islam was a very new religion and determined its artist influences cross culturally.

Dome of the Rock was Influenced by Byzantine centrally planned buildings like San Vitale. They also borrowed the Byzantine tradition of mosaic work.  Mosaics on this building use tessellation or polygonal shapes that repeat without gaps.

Roman influence can be seen in mausolea, (burial places for Roman emperors were circular) and the Roman dome (Pantheon). They were also Influenced by columns taken from Roman monuments (spolia) and the arcade.

 Coptic traditions of present-day Egypt and Syria, include its geometric motifs. Sassanian metal work was borrowed from what is present day Iran.

Pure Geometry

All decoration is aniconic meaning it is nonrepresentational and purely geometric . Here is why.

Muslims believed that mathematics was an indication that God controlled and had created the entire universe. Tessellations and mathematical designs help to reinforce this idea.

Muslims took the second commandment very strictly. It reads, “Thou shalt have no graven images”.  This was interpreted by Muslims as meaning there should not be anything representational in any religious art whatsoever

Function

• Original function still debated – but it is a shrine, NOT a mosque
• Symbol of caliphate strength
• Testament to the power of the new Islamic faith
• Pilgrimage site: Muslim pilgrims circumambulate the rock at the center of the building

 Content

• Center includes the foundation stone (sacred rock):
  • Jews believe this was the site for the beginning of the world
  • Adam was buried (or some say made) here
  • Abraham nearly sacrificed Isaac here
  • Muhammad went on his “night journeys” here (Angel Gabriel took him to visit heaven, Moses, Christ, paradise and hell, and God)
  • Temple of Jerusalem was located here (destroyed by Titus in 70 CE)
• On the exterior is an inscription that is 787 feet long (earliest surviving example of the Koran)
  • Includes shahada (confession of faith; belief in one God and one God only)
• Mosaic designs on exterior and interior

Historical Background

Dome of the Rock is the earliest surviving Islamic building. It was created during the Umayyad period and the 1^st caliphate of Islam.

It was built under the patronage of Abd al-Malik, who was the most important Umayyad caliph,  in the midst of a civil war

Whether there was a Byzantine church on this site, or near it, is still debated. Yet the Byzantine church style was still a huge influence on this building.

 

(7) 187. Folio from a Qur’an.

Abbasid.  8^th – 9^th Century CE. Arab (North Africa, or Near East). Islamic.

 

Learning Objective: Islamic religious text

Theme:

Text and image
Religion
Status
Materials with significance

Museum: Morgan Library in New York City

Folio from a Qur’an was created with ink, color, and gold on parchment paper. The paper was costly and made from sheep or goat skin.  The work measures 12 inches wide.

The word folio simply means a page in a book. Dimensions of the page were calculated carefully before cutting the parchment.

The page uses calligraphy or writing that is intentionally decorative to indicate status and significance. Each page contains only nine lines of calligraphy. Calligraphic style used by early scribes is known as Kufic. This method employed strokes of uniform thickness, short straight vertical lines, and long horizontal lines.

The text is written in brown ink and reads from right to left. Vowels are the red dots that are placed above or below a letter. Titles of the passage are written in gold ink and surrounded by a decorative rectangle.

Imagery is aniconic and features arabesques. Artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs.

More Details 

• Six gold circles denote the end of each verse.
• The bar in the center Identifies title of next verse or
• Red dots are vowels to aide in correct pronunciation.
• The gold medallion extends beyond the border to draw the viewer’s attention to the beginning of the suras.

Function

Folio from a Qur’an is a sacred text. The goal is to teach, educate, praise God. Remember, in Islam, the Quran is the ACTUAL word of God.

The materials used suggest the wealth and status of the patron who was likely an aristocratic elite. The calligraphy conveyed the dignity and splendor of this text just like Christian illuminated manuscripts.

Content

• Qur’an is the sacred text of Islam
• Divine revelations to Prophet Muhammad in Arabic
• Sura: section of verse from the Qu’ran

Context

The Quran was revealed to Muhammad via the Angel Gabriel from God. It is believed to literally be God’s word.