Roman Art

ROMAN ART

509-27 BCE

Theme for Roman Republic and Roman Empire: “MERIT”

Acronym for Monuments, Engineering, Realism, Interior spaces, and Temples: all of which were key Roman artistic contributions.

“Merit” is also a term connected to the idea of virtue, worth, and praise.  This references the function of Roman sculpture and architecture, which was typically for political propaganda.

Historical Context

• Romulus and Remus begin monarchy; overthrown and replaced by Senate
• The Roman Republic (509 – 27 BCE)
• 211 BCE: Sicily annexed; 146 BCE: Greece annexed
• 44 BCE: Murder of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March plunged Rome into a 13-year civil war. The fighting ended when Octavian (Augustus), Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted son, crushed the navy of Mark Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt.
• The Early Empire (27 BCE- 192 CE)
• The old Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE when the Senate conferred on Octavian the title of Augustus.
• 79 CE: Destruction of Pompeii by Mt. Vesuvius
• The Late Empire (192 CE – 476 CE)
• 410 CE: Sacked by Visogoths

Artistic Innovations

• Propagandistic art: monumental buildings, public works projects, and sculptures dedicated to gods and state, reveal civic pride.
• Wealthy, elite, or political Romans were the major artistic patrons.

Architecture

• Arch, vault, concrete
• Roads, aqueducts
• Composite and Tuscan columns

Painting

• Frescos; four styles; created to enliven small windowless cubicula
• Landscapes, mythological scenes, city scenes
• Mosaics; encaustics (colored bees wax)
• Linear perspective; orthogonals; vanishing points; atmospheric perspective; foreshortening

Sculpture

• Based off of Greek models
• Workshops sometimes just replicated Greek sculptures
• Commemorative sculpture

 

(2) 42. Head of a Roman Patrician

Roman Republic.  Marble. 75-50 BCE.  Roman Republic.

Learning Objective:  Roman Republican sculpture

Theme:

Ideal man*
Portrait
Civic
Commemoration
Cross-cultural
Politics
Ancestors
Status

Museum: Palazzo Torlonia, Rome

This work, approximately 14 inches high, is crafted from marble and polychromed or painted in several different colors. This is a portrait in bust form from the shoulders up.

The function was to depict a person accurately. The veristic style is one that is highly realistic and often exaggerated. The old man looks old indeed. Yet in Roman times age meant wisdom, experience, and respect. This face of a Roman patrician aristocrat, nobleman or senator, is also toothless, with a sagging jawline. The name of the individual is unknown.

Patrons of Roman Art

Patrons of Roman art were almost all men from old and distinguished families.  They were fiercely proud of their lineage and wanted to preserve likenesses of themselves and ancestors. Roman Republic art was not interested in idealization and perfection in form but interested in work ethic and civic service.

(2) 40. Alexander Mosaic

Roman Republic. 100 BCE. Roman copy of the Greek painting 315 BCE. Roman Republic

Learning Objective: Roman mosaic

Themes:

War
Victory
Rulers
Power
Violence
Status
Cross-cultural
Politics

Museum: Archaeological Museum in Naples

This mosaic made from over a million and a half tiny pieces of glass and stone, known as tesserae . The work measures 8 feet by 11 inches and 16 feet by 9 inches, shows a naturalistic style. It exhibits radical foreshortening, or extension perpendicular to the picture plane, into the deep, painted space. Figures are not stacked but turned into picture plane.   The tesserae show modeling, or use of light and dark to create shadow, which conveys a roundness of form.

Made for Home

The work was found between two courtyards in the most extravagant mansion, called House of Faun, in Pompei. It was preserved in the ash of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvious.

This floor was the first thing a visitor would see upon entering the foyer of the home.

Setting the Scene

In the Alexander Mosaic a fearful Darius on the left has just told his soldiers to flee. He has spun his chariot around, while his soldiers have yet to lower their spears to the Greeks. Many Persians are wounded.

One on the ground sees his own reflection in his armour before he starts to die.

On the right Alexander remains triumphant. In his time, the great leader managed not only to unify Greece, but also moved into parts of Egypt, east into Persia and into Induus Valley.

Backgrounder

It depicts the battle between the Greeks and Alexander the Great and the Persians and Darius III. Literature from the time claims the work is a replica of a Greek painting, yet paintings from this time have never been found.

It displays the Romans love for Greek works, but also an interest in Alexander. Although he died at the age of 32, he was considered a great leader.

The Early Empire
(27 BCE – 98 C.E.)

• 27 BCE: Augustus Caesar declared imperator (emperor)
• Pax Romana: Roman peace, public works projects, trade flourishes

August 24, 79 CE: Mount Vesuvius, a long dormant and supposedly extinct volcano, erupted and buried cities (Pompeii).

• Catastrophe for Pompeiians is fantastic for art historians.
• So well preserved under ash, historians can reconstruct Roman life in these towns.
• Roman wall painting: 19^thcentury German art historian, August Mau, classifies Pompeian frescoes into four so-called Pompeian styles.

(2) 39. House of the Vettii

Roman Empire. 2^nd century. BCE; rebuilt 62-79 CE.  Roman Empire

Learning Objective:  Roman domestic architecture

Themes:

Domestic space
Status
Private
Architecture

The House of Vettii was one of the most luxurious private homes, or Roman townhouse known as domus, in Pompeii, Italy. The 1, 1000 square meter, stone cut home was named for its owners, two successful brothers, who were former slaves and now freedmen, Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. The were newly rich, gathering riches as merchants and wanted a way to display their wealth.

Most of Pompeii had private homes with few exterior windows and one entrance from the street. At the House of Vettii the entrance is through a foyer into an atrium, or open air courtyard with an impluvium, or sunken space to catch the rainwater.   Cubiculas, or private bedrooms surrounded the atrium.  Typically, homes had a second atrium which was surrounded by a peristyle or rectangle of columns. Atriums/peristyle courtyards are sources of illumination.

Pentheus Room

Pompeiian wall frescoes are preserved which has allowed historians to study them.

Historians found there were four styles:

The First Style was faux marble blocks.

The Second Style was naturalistic scenes, as though looking through a window.

The Third Style included slender architectural details, often done in gold or yellow.

Finally, the Fourth Style was a combination of all three, often with scenes of mythological images. The House of Vettii has excellent examples of the Fourth Style.

Techniques to illustrate depth include highlights and modeling, overlapping figures, one point perspective, and atmospheric perspective.

In the Fourth Style wall fresco in the Pentheus Room, the scene on the left is Young Hercules Strangling the Snakes. The scene on the right shows the  Pentheus being torn to pieces by the Cult of Bacchus. Pentheus opposed the cult of Bacchus.

The Background Story

Roman architect Vitruvius wrote De Architectura (On Architecture) in 1^st century BCE. He mentioned Etruscan Temple of Minerva. He also outlined the key elements and proportions of a Roman home.

The House of Vettii was based on an ideal Pompeian house from Vitruvius’s De Architectura (On Architecture).

(1) Foyer

(2) Atrium

(3) Impluvium

(4) Cubiculum

(5) Peristyle

The home was discovered in the 18^th century during archaeological excavations that unearthed Pompeii. The city had been buried in volcanic ash  Pompeii with the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

 

(2) 43. Augustus of Prima Porta

Roman Empire. Early 1^st century, CE.  Roman Empire.

Learning Objective: Roman imperial sculpture

Themes:

Ideal man
Ruler
Deities
Power
Politics
Propaganda
Commemoration
Portrait

Museum: Vatican Museum

In Augustus of Prima Porta, this marble work, standing six feet and six inches, Augustus is dressed in his best finery. He is depicted in his ideal youth, as a powerful figure. The work was originally painted.

 

In Detail

Based closely on Doryphoros by Polykleitos, the sculpture stands in contrapposto. The relaxed stance of the Primaporta statue also gives it the look of being real and portraying action.

His breast plate, or cuirass, is a detailed canvass for the story he wanted to tell. In pictures it depicts battles he won. Sol and Caelus, the sun god and sky god appear.  There are female figures that represent countries he conquered. Apollo, Diana, and the earth god Tellus also are present.

At his feet is Cupid riding a dolphin. Cupid is the son of Venus and this inclusion hinted at that Augustus was descended from the gods. (In fact, it was declared true the day he died!) The dolphin was the symbol of his navel victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Here he overtook Antony and Cleopatra, becoming the sole ruler of the empire.

Political Propaganda

The message was clear. Good would come to the Romans. All thanks to Augustus.

Caesar Augustus was the founder of the Roman Empire and the first Emperor of Rome. He was an ambitious man. In his book he wrote:

“In my nineteenth year, on my own initiative and at my own expense, I raised an army with which I set free the state, which was oppressed by the domination of a faction.”

Augustus was less than 19 when he inherited Julius Caesar’s empire

The work is a piece of political propaganda. Found at Livia’s home, Villa of Livia, in Prima Porta, Rome, this is where senators and generals were invited.

 

(2) 44. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater). Roman Empire.

70-80 CE.  Rome, Italy. Roman Empire.

Learning Objective: Roman public architecture (amphitheater)

Themes:

Civic
Public
Community
Athletes
Site-specific
Architecture
Innovation
Politics
Rulers
Propaganda
Commemoration

The Colosseum (a nickname for the Flavian Amphitheatre) is a work in stone and concrete that took 10 years to build. It could accommodate up to 50,000 people and measures 615 feet  long by 510 feet wide.

What is the Difference Between a Theater and an Amphitheater?

A theatre is half a circle, while an amphitheatre is a full circle.

The Details

Above each ground floor arch is a carved number in Roman numerals: this indicated the seating section for spectators. There were 76 entrances or vomitoria that encircled the bottom.

The seating was determined by status. The emperor had his own private box.  On the first level sat senators, magistrates, vestal virgins and wealthy women. The second level was reserved for knights and generals. The third and fourth level were for the middle class. The fifth level held women and the poor.

A Concrete Construction

Built with concrete technology, this led to new shapes, such as curved walls. The concrete was made with lime mortar, volcanic sand, and water that was mixed together. It was then placed in wooden frames to dry.

To make sure concrete pieces stay firmly attached to one another, instead of using mortar, Romans used lead and bronze pins, like a skeleton that held multiple blocks together. Concrete formed the core but the outside was covered with travertine.

Romans believed that concrete was effective and practical but ugly. Concrete was cheaper than importing tufa or Greek marble. Also general labourers, or in this case Roman slaves could work in the construction and not specialists.

Arches

The Romans were masters at building arches and the Colessum masters the arch. The arches were built with a wooden frames underneath that could be removed. Each stone has to be wedge-shaped or smaller at bottom than on top. If this was achieved correctly, mortar was not needed.

A voussoir is individual stones of an arch. A keystone is the topmost, central stone in an arch. Arches can be extended or stretched horizontally into barrel vaults. This building shows three circular barrel vaults that are layered upon one another.  Two-barrel vaults that intersect are called groin vaults. An arch rotated in space is called a dome.

The Columns

The façade has engaged columns, columns that are rounded but attached to a building on the back side. First story is Tuscan or Doric with a base. The second story is Ionic. The third story is Corinthian. Each order or section is lighter, more decorative and complex than the order

A Moving Floor and Ceiling

The floor was built with trap doors, and completely covered with sand so that it was pitch black underneath. There were working elevators that were pulled up by rope, to bring props, animals and people up to the stage.

A velarium or shade, in the form of a retractable roof, was pulled to cover the wide opening at the top of the building.

The Spectacle

In the morning, the audience could watch animal hunts. Exotic animals were brought in for these events. There were wolves from Italy, giraffes from Africa, bears from Germany and crocodiles from the Nile. These animals were kept in the dark depths of the building, starving for days to encourage aggression.

At lunch time, prisoners were executed. In the afternoon, Gladiators, competed to the death. There were sometimes up to 100 games per day.

Large theatrical events also took place a naval battle was recreated with 3,000 participants and the flooding of the Colosseum.

In Context

The building was named Flavian Amphitheater after the new ruling family the Flavians. They followed the Julio-Claudians, who ended when Nero committed suicide. Nero was the last Julio-Claudian, His reign was marked by extravagance, corruption, and brutality. He burned Christians and killed his mother and wife, before killing himself.

First Flavian ruler was Vespasian. He chose to claim back public land, in which Nero had taken from the people and built a private palace park, with an artificial lake. Here he built Flavian Amphitheater (Colesseum) This he used to entertain the masses.

In the Middle Ages, Crusaders caused damage to the Colosseum, by removing lead and bronze pins for their weaponry. To find these pins, they had to dig holes in the Colosseum.

(7) 181. Petra, Jordan.

Nabataean Ptolemaic 400 BCE – 100 CE. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman (Early Empire)

Learning Objectives: Hellenistic architecture (diffusion)

Themes:

Funerary
Appropriation
Status
Cross-cultural
Architecture

Petra is famous for its rock cut tombs built in what today is Jordan.  Here there are 800 tombs, and 3000 architectural elements carved from sandstone and limestone. Located in a rocky basin, Petra is accessed by a deep road called Siq. Geographically, the site is located 150 miles south of both Amman, the capital of Jordan and Jerusalem.

Background History

The Nabatean people had settled in southern Jordan by 312 BCE.  Ideally placed at the Northern end of the Caravan Route that ran from South Arabia to the Mediterranean, the people were great traders during the late Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods. The commerce of luxury products such as frankincense and myrrh, that was burned at alters, as well as spice, contributed to a wealthy society.

The Romans invaded during 106 CE and changed the name to Arabia Petrae. Here, they ruled for 250 years, until an earthquake destroyed the buildings. The Byzantines would take control later and govern for another 300 years. Petra was mostly abandoned however, by the eight century CE.

Referred to as the Rose City, because of the color the stone appears, Petra was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 1985.

Function

Initially, historians thought Petra was a large necropolis or cemetery. The architecture proves otherwise, uncovering what was once an active and well-developed metropolis.

With talented architects the community transformed the rocky desert into a great city through innovative constructions. Engineers turned the dusty land into a garden oasis by using an elaborate water system through damming, terracing, and irrigation. This was used to harvest, store and distribute water collected during the rainy season.

The Treasury Façade

The most famous building is the Treasury (or Khazneh). It measures 249 meters wide by 38.77 meters high.

The façade contains both Hellenistic, and Near Eastern architecture. As the city grew it was influenced by trade and culture of Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines.

Architectural features include broken pediment with two obelisks above reaching into the rocks. There are ornate Corinthian columns throughout. There is also a circular building at the top called a tholos.

Sculptural works on the lower level include the twin Greek gods Castor and Pollux, known to protect both travelers and the dead.  The upper levels house Amazons and Victories around an unidentified female goddess.

Other symbols include eagles, vines, vegetation, and vases with large handles, known as kantharoi. The rosettes are associated with the Ancient Near East.

Fun fact: The Treasury at Petra appeared in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.

Great Temple

The Great Temple at Petra is the largest freestanding building that has been excavated at the site. The temple precinct has a formal entry or Propylaeum, a Lower Temenos, or sacred enclosure. To access the Upper Temenos, there are two sets of stairs. These are located both east and west.

The temple continued to thrive well into the Roman period. It stopped being used following the devastating earthquake that struck Petra in 363 CE.

The Painted Biclinium

This monument is named for the benches that are carved out along two walls. The painting on the ceiling of the alcove, a rare glimpse of this medium in Nabatean culture, is an intricate creation of grapevines, flowers, birds, and cherubs. The interior also has drawings of Roman gods, including the son of Venus, Cupid.

The High Empire
(98 CE – 192 CE)

• Empire reached its greatest geographical extent.
• For a time, Rome’s power was essentially unchallenged in the West.
• Barbarians in the North and East began to attack.
• Pattern of succession established: emperor adopts a capable and popular general whom he is unrelated to.
• Trajan, a Spaniard and not an Italian, is first chosen under this new imperial system. (ruled from 98-117 CE)
• Hadrian is Trajan’s successor and a connoisseur and lover of arts.

(2) 45. Forum of Trajan.

Apollodorus of Damascus. Roman Empire. 106-112 CE. Rome Italy. Roman Empire.

Learning Objective: Roman public architecture (forum)

Themes:

Civic
Public
Architecture
Commercial
Commemoration
Power
Rulers
Politics
Propaganda

Forum of Trajan is made of concrete and brick. It measures 980 feet by 607 feet. Trajan was a great military general who expanded the Roman Empire to its largest borders. Like Julius Caesar he wanted to have his own forum. Yet, there was no space available in Rome at the time.

Trajan asked his best architect Apollodorus of Damascus to remove a hill in the city and build the Forum of Trajan.

The Romans did not particularly like concrete, but it was cheap, and they always covered it with marble or brick as with the Forum of Trajan. Concrete also let the Romans build in new ways that were not limited to post-and-lintel construction.

A Public Space Of Power

The Forum of Trajan was a civic space, a  hub that became an administrative, commercial, and political center.  It commemorated the Romans’ victory over the Dacians.

Trajan’s Forum was the size of all other imperial forums put together. Here, the military general was able to show his power, prestige, merit, and virtue.

A Quick Tour of the Forum

At the entryway there is an over-life size gilded bronze statue of  the emperor. The Basilica Ulpia  is complete with apses, and libraries filled with Greek and Roman literature. Additionally, there is the Column of Trajan and the Temple of Trajan.

Basilica Ulpia

The word Ulpia comes from Trajan’s family name.

Basilica Ulpia was a law court and largest basilica in Rome.  The apse was where judges sat, illuminated by clerestory windows. The ceilings were coffered, a technique allowing spaces of the concrete carved to lighten the weight.

The basilica was decorated with niches, carvings, relief sculptures and free-standing sculpture.

Basilica Ulpia is considered the most important architectural design in Rome. The architect took the design of the Greek Parthenon, hollowed it out and added apses.  The building shape and design came to signify authority.

The basilica can accommodate large numbers of people. There is one single entrance and exit  to control the flow of people and one single vantage point upon entering.

Trajan Markets

This was a two-story market with 150 shops and offices. The shops, or taberna, varied in size and were rented to shopkeepers. Each shop had a small store-front and storage rooms in the back. These were part of a semi-circular building, with clerestory windows or windows along the roofline. It was built using groin vault construction.

Column of Trajan

The grounds were made up of 125 feet high Roman Doric columns.  Each were 12 feet in diameter and made up 114 individual themes.

Column of Trajan is made of stone from Luna, Italy. Eight solid marble pieces were quarried for the base, with 20 pieces 10 feet in diameter for the column. Each piece is individually carved to create a continuous spiral frieze.  The composition is crowded with 2500 low relief figures. The work shows the Romans at battle, winning with superior military skills.

This was originally commissioned to be a lookout tower and later was converted to a war memorial.  It commemorated Trajan’s campaigns against the Dacians of modern-day Romania. Trajan’s ashes are now located in the base.

The column could be entered, and once inside a spiral staircase led to a viewing platform

(2) 46. Pantheon

Roman Empire. 118-125 CE.  Rome, Italy. Roman Empire.

Learning Objective: Roman dome / Roman temple

Themes:

Architecture
Innovation
Deities
Place of worship
Power
Politics
Rulers
Religion
Appropriation
Changing interpretation

The Pantheon in Rome, Italy, is an impressive structure measuring  142 feet high by 142 feet wide.

Originally set in a rectangular courtyard, the concrete with stone facing structure was framed by a colonnade. Only the front of the building would have been visible, with its impressive columns. These massive columns are made from marble imported from Egypt and form one piece. At the top are gigantic fragments that were once made of marble Corinthian capitals.

Architectural Features

The structure of the entire building relies on something the Romans were masters of. That is concrete. Here thick barrels of concrete are used. The walls are concrete mixed with basalt, a hard stone. These walls are 20 feet thick at the base. The dome or cupola was concrete with pumice for a lighter ceiling. A coffered ceiling helps to make the dome lighter.

The building interior is a radial style. This means the focus is on a central point which radiates out. A shape of a sphere would fill the interior. In fact, the interior is comprised with an obsession toward perfect geometry like circles, rectangles, and squares.  Decorative marble, imported from the far reaches of the Roman Empire adds colour in purple, orange, and blue.

There is an oculus, or circle cut into the ceiling that measures 27 feet across. This acts like a sundial. As the sun shines in it illuminates various parts of the building. The window does not contain glass, so when it rains, the floor gets wet.

A Dedication to the Gods

Hadrian’s temple was dedicated to all the gods but particularly, twelve main gods:

• Zeus (sky)
• Hera (marriage, mothers, families)
• Poseidon (sea)
• Demeter (agriculture)
• Athena (wisdom and war)
• Hephaestus (blacksmiths, fire)
• Ares (war)
• Aphrodite (love and beauty),
• Apollo (music, poetry, medicine, sun),
• Artemis (moon, hunt, maidens),
• Hermes (roadways, travelers),
• Dionysus (wine)

History

The first monument on the site, was built by Marcus Agrippa to show Rome’s power over Antony and Cleopatra. After a fire, it was destroyed.  Then, the pantheon was built for Roman emperor Hadrian. Some say, it was a copy of the original. Others say the second building was not built by Hadrian, but that he inherited the construction near the end and took credit.

What started out as a temple of the gods, held statures of gods, goddesses, and emperors. Later it was turned into a church. Today it is a popular tourist attraction.

This it is one of the most copied architecture ever created. It is also one of the best preserved ancient Roman Monuments.

A New Theory

Today, historians think that Hadrian might have not used the Pantheon as temple , but rather a kind of monument to Roman emperors and political power. Many think it was his statement of humility to previous emperors.

 Theme for Late Roman/Early Christian Art: “Transformed”

This theme is used to describe the ways Greco-Roman architectural and iconographic forms were “transformed” by Christians.  Christians used these forms to facilitate their new view of the world and the new requirements of their worship.

Late Empire (192-306 CE)

• Cultural influences bring about changes in Roman art and architecture in the Late Empire period.
• The dissolution and chaos of the Roman Empire is mirrored in the abandonment of the classical tradition, previously embraced by Roman emperors.
• Power, order, idealization, and individuality are lost in the art of the Late Empire.
• Crowded tightly together; pushed forward on picture plane; depth and recession rejected.
• Contrapposto ignored.
• Emperors are increasingly shown as military figures rather than civilian rulers.
• At the end of the 2nd century CE the power of Rome was beginning to decline.
• The Soldier Emperors (235-284 CE)
• Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284-306 CE)
• Constantine (306-337 CE) and conversion to Christianity

Portrait of Caracalla.  211-217 CE. Marble.

Right:  Portrait of Trajan Decius.  249-251 CE. Marble.

(2) 47. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

Late Roman Empire. 250-260 CE. Late Roman Empire.

Learning Objective: Late Roman funerary sculpture

Themes:

Funeraray
War
Afterlife
Violence
Status
Religion

Museum: Museo Nazionale Romano – Palazzo Altemps, Rome

This marble sarcophagus is a highly intricate work carved in deep relief, using a hand drill. The work stands 5 feet tall. This sarcophagus was discovered in 1621 in a tomb near the Porta Tiburtina, in Rome, and purchased by Cardinal Ludovisi, hence the name.

The Romans are depicted in classic style, with attractive features, while the Barbarians appear gargoyle like.  The work itself is not classical, but highly chaotic. People, armour, and horses are piled deeply on top of one another. There is not a single clean space. The images at the bottom are smaller as if crushed down by the weight of the others.

The hero is in the center with arms outreached welcoming victory.

It is unclear who was buried in this sarcophagus. Judging by the amount of work it would have taken for the artist to create the work, historians assume the diseased was a member of the elite classes.

Christians were still being persecuted in the Roman Empire. They were not accepted until the 4^th century CE. Constantine’s Edict of Milan is when Christianity was officially a tolerated religion.

Burials occurred in underground chambers called catacombs. Openings called loculi were cut into walls to hold the dead and to hold sarcophagi.

Christians found cremation repugnant and preferred burials. They felt they needed their bodies during the end times, when Christ would raise the good and the dead to fight the devil.

Many wealthy Romans began to adopt the practice of saving the body rather than using cremation.

Context

This sarcophagus was discovered in 1621 in a tomb near the Porta Tiburtina, in Rome, and purchased by Cardinal Ludovisi, hence the name.

Christians were still being persecuted in the Roman Empire. They were not accepted until the 4^th century CE. Constantine’s Edict of Milan is when Christianity was officially a tolerated religion.

Burials occurred in underground chambers called catacombs. Openings called loculi were cut into walls to hold the dead and to hold sarcophagi.

Christians found cremation repugnant and preferred burials. They felt they needed their bodies during the end times, when Christ would raise the good and the dead to fight the devil.

Many wealthy Romans began to adopt the practice of saving the body rather than using cremation.

Late Empire (Christian) : 306 CE – 476 CE

 7 BCE – 2 BCE (?): Jesus was born in Judea and becomes Jewish rabbi in Galilee; 30 CE – 33 CE (?): Jesus crucified.

• Christianity spreads extremely quickly, despite being prohibited; this necessitated practice of Christianity “underground”.
• 313 CE: Edict of Milan with Emperor Constantine
• Christianity officially recognized as a tolerated religion (marks a political separation from Judaism)
• Difficulties still existed and most early Popes were martyred.
• Christians were persecuted and this necessitated worship underground.
• Earliest works are catacombs and sarcophagi.
• Artists who took Christian commissions had to be careful to avoid persecution,
• Christians were low-class and typically poor, so there were no large commissions.
• This changed after Edict of Milan.
• Christianity adapted imagery and architectural forms from Greco-Roman cults.
• Dominance over pagan forms of worship
• Appropriate early symbols to utilize for Christian God.

Late Empire (Christian): Artistic Innovations

Architecture

• Axially planned Roman basilicas; centrally planned Roman forums.
• Catacombs

Painting

• Prior to 313: Christ as Good Shepherd
• After: Christ shown with imperial imagery; purple and gold; crook and staff; orb and halo

 Sculpture

• Large scale works avoided.
• A desire to not look pagan.
• Short figures: squat proportions, less interested in individuality than spiritual message

DRAWING

(3) 48. Catacombs of Priscilla.

200-400 CE. Rome, Italy. Late Roman Empire (Early Christian).

Learning Objective: Christian catacomb

Themes:

Funerary
Place of worship
Biblical
Religion
Community

The Catacombs of Priscilla, just north of Rome, Italy, occupies over five miles of underground burials that are three stories deep. Over 40,000 tombs were discovered inside.  It is made from natural quarries of tufa, a stone that is soft and easy to carve.

Inside are frescos, which shows a Roman influence with sketchy painterly brushstrokes that evoke Pompeiian painting. Yet, much of the work has been destroyed due to the humidity inside the catacombs.

What is a Catacomb?

A catacomb is an underground cemetery with subterranean pathways. Catacombs provided a place of early Christian worship during a time when they were prosecuted during the age of the Roman Empire. Catacombs are where some of the earliest Christians are buried, as well as the Beginning of creation of Christian iconography and Christian symbolism.

 The Greek Chapel

 Named for the two Greek inscriptions in the room, The Greek Chapel, is a cubicula or mortuary room and place for worship. It has three niches, called loculi for sarcophagi.  It is decorated in the style of the first Roman wall painting, imitating marble panels. The painted scenes referred to divine intervention and Christ’s miracles.

The Orant fresco or Cubiculum of the Veiled Woman, depicts one woman three times in a continuous narrative about the life of a Christian woman. On the left a bishop is officiating her marriage. On the right she is seated, nursing her newborn baby in a scene about motherhood. The large figure in the center is in orant or prayer pose. This symbolizes her blessed afterlife once she fulfills her familial obligations.

In the Good Shepherd frescoes, Christ is depicted as a shepherd. Prior to Constantine, Christ was often depicted this way, or as a young teacher. After the Edict of Milan, Christ is shown as a judge or king. This is because of the political and cultural changes regarding Christianity’s validity.

In the medallion or circle, the portrait of Christ as Good Shepherd, is a pastoral motif going back to the Greek Calf Bearer. The symbolism is that Christ will rescue individual sinners who stray from his flock, just like a shepherd does for sheep.  Notice the cross design of the ceiling, which is domed like the Dome of Heaven.

Who was Priscilla?

These catacombs are built underneath a villa, once owned by a wealthy woman named Priscilla. This is how she decided to help sponsor the poor, as only the upper class could afford the cubicula and buy sarcophagi.

In 313 CE, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which not only forbid Christian persecution, but tolerated Christianity within the Roman empire. Until the sanction of the state, Christians remained hidden in small numbers. The religion attracted the poor, with a promise of a better afterlife. Since rich and poor were judged on equal terms Priscilla and other wealthy Christians, believe that the poor deserved a proper burial.

The First Examples of Christian Art

Why did Christianity exist for 200 years without artistic production? There are many theories. Some think that it may not have survived. Others think the 2^nd commandment prohibited it.

Still another theory is that they did want their religion to be new, which focused on monotheism, not to replicate the Greco-Roman traditions that focused on polytheism and nudity.

(3) 49. Santa Sabina

Late Antique Europe. 422-432 CE. Late Roman Empire (Early Christian).

Learning Objective: Late Roman / Early Christian Church

Themes:

Light
Architecture
Place of worship
Religion
Appropriation
Biblical
Commemoration

The building for Santa Sabina was constructed by Peter of Illyria, in Rome, Italy. It is made of brick and stone, with a wooden roof.  The exterior is bare, simple, and unadorned.

This Christian architecture was adapted from a Roman basilica. The building’s shape and design signified government authority, thanks to the Roman predecessors. The basilica’s association with law and justice pairs well with the Christian belief of the last judgement.

 Interior Features

Santa Sabina can accommodate a vast  number of people. It has one single entrance and exit point. The vantage point upon entering is the altar.

A dominant central axis leads from the entrance to the apse. Corinthian columns produce a steady rhythm along the arcade that draws all attention on the apse.  The central space has a nave, flanked by side aisles, where you can see columns that line the nave.

A spolia is a repurposed architectural piece. In this case, it is the columns used from a pagan building and repurposed.

The clerestory, a row of windows along the top, emits light. These are not filled with stained glass but selenite, a colourless, transparent gypsum. The stained glass that is visible was added later. Light is a symbol of Christ, with an emphasis is on the spiritual, and intangible.

The interior ceiling is simple with a coffer technique to lighten the wood.

A Church Dedicated to Saint Sabina

This Roman Catholic church is dedicated to Saint Sabina. In 430, her relics were brought to Santa Sabina. The exterior is meant to display the grit and corruption of the human body. The interior is bright, glittering with mosaics, and light, as if it displays the human soul.

A Look at the Details

Inside this Basilica-plan church are spandrels or spaces between the tops of arches. This depicts chalices and bread plates. It references the Eucharist, a ceremony in the church when people take communion. Here bread and wine symbolize body and blood.

Historical Background of Christianity

Constantine legalized Christianity with the Edit of Milan in 313 CE. Christians can then worship in public spaces. Large numbers of people convert, as the religion grows.