Mesopotamian Art

MESOPOTAMIAN ART

3500- 331 BCE

Theme: “SBAP”

SABAP is an acronym for Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian.  This theme will help you recall the chronological order of the Ancient Near East Cultures, as well as remember that the dominant cultures in the Ancient Near East continually replaced one another.

In Focus

Artistic traditions focused on representing royal figures and divinities and on the function of funerary and palatial complexes. Works of art illustrate the active exchange of ideas and artistic styles among the Mediterranean cultures and influences on the classical world.

The art of the ancient Near East (present day Iraq, Syria, Iran, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan , Cyprus) is associated with the city-states and cultures of Sumerian, Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persia.

Sumerian Art (3500 -2340 BCE)

Akkadian Art (2340 – 2180 BCE)

Neo-Sumerian Art (2150-2000 BCE)

Babylonian Art (1792-1750 BCE)

Hittite Art (1600- 1200 BCE)

Assyrian Art (1000- 612 BCE)

Neo-Babylonian (612-539 BCE)

Persian Art (559- 331 BCE)

Artistic innovations through the development of writing and the human figure, as well as conventions (canons) provides a foundation for subsequent artistic traditions within the region and beyond. There was constant political change in the region, because of the geography. They were slow to construct unified communities because of the openness to the outside world.

Religion played a significant role in the art and architecture of the ancient Near East. Cosmology guided representation of deities and kings who, themselves, assumed divine attributes.

Artists created fully developed formal sculptures of human figures and artistic conventions representing the human form. This was a combination of profile and three-quarter view. Important figures were designed to be set apart using a hierarchical scale or a division of composition into horizontal sections or registers. These works provide early examples of historical narratives.

Architectural representations include monumental ziggurats and monumental settings for the worship of many deities, that proclaimed the power and authority of rulers. Architecture was restricted by available materials. There were no stone quarries or forests, so the use of mud sun baked bricks was the technology.

 Historical Context

• The Neolithic Revolution first occurred in Mesopotamia, a Greek word that means the “land between the [Tigris and Euphrates] rivers.”
• The Tigris and Euphrates were volatile rivers, leading to the belief that animistic gods were temperamental and punishing.
• Multiple city-states tried to control these lower valleys.
• Ancient Near East art supported the state and religion.
• Buildings were created for religion (ziggurats)
• Buildings were created for the state (palaces). Kings realized that art could help them glorify their rules.
• Stone was expensive, wood was scarce, but earth/dirt was abundant.

The Story

Mesopotamia was located in present-day Iraq and eastern Syria. Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, this region was perfect for the establishment of early agriculture. The earliest development of agriculture in this region dates to about 9000 B.C.E., during the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, period.

The people who lived in this fertile area were able to grow and store food, and they no longer had to rely on a nomadic hunting and gathering lifestyle. As a result, they began settling areas to tend to their crops, and towns and cities arose. Agriculture slowly transformed the civilizations in other areas of the Ancient Near East as well an area that also includes Syria, Iran, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Cyprus.

Between 3500 B.C.E and 330 B.C.E., successive societies rose to power through invasions with the goal to control the wealth, water (for irrigation), and agricultural resources of the area. The balance of power shifted between outside invaders and local powers.

The Sumerian, Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian (or SANBAN) societies, followed by Persia, influenced each other culturally by reacting to or rejecting the previous culture. Their art and architecture reflect these reactions, rejections, and cultural interconnections.

Sumerian Influence

In the fourth millennium B.C.E., a civilization called Sumer arose in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians were united by a common language and a religious culture that ruled independent, and often competitive, political entities called city-states.

The Sumerians developed cuneiform, the first writing system, and distinct forms of art and architecture, including votive figures, cylinder seals, and the ziggurat, which emphasized the power of the king.

Akkadian Influence

Although their cultural and technological innovations would have a strong influence on many later cultures, the Sumerian people eventually fell under the power of the Akkadians. The ruler of the Akkadians, Sargon, united all the Sumerian city-states, ruling from his capital of Akkad.

This introduced the concept of royal rule based on unwavering loyalty to the king rather than to the individual city-state. While the Akkadians had their own language, they used the Sumerian writing system. Few artifacts can be identified with the Akkadians, but what has been discovered includes the Head of an Akkadian ruler and the Stele of Naram-Sin. The Akkadian Empire fell around 2180 B.C.E. to the Guti, a mountain people from the northeast.

Head of an Akkadian ruler (Sargon).

Neo-Sumerian Influence

Gutians controlled most of Mesopotamia for a brief time, but the Sumerian people regained control and expelled the Guti under the leadership of King Urnammu of Ur. He reintroduced the Sumerian language and commissioned architecture like the Ziggurat of Ur. This Neo-Sumerian period was short-lived, as they were conquered by the Amorites.

Babylonian Influence

The Amorites reunited Mesopotamia under the ruler, Hammurabi. The capital city was Babylon and therefore, the subjects were called Babylonians. Hammurabi re-instituted the Akkadian language and a written legal code that detailed specific laws and consequences in The Code of Hammurabi.

The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792–1750 B.C.E. Basalt

 

The Hittites later conquered Babylon in 1595 B.C.E., and Mesopotamia entered a period of transition dominated by foreign peoples.

Assyrian Influence

The Assyrians emerged in the period of transition after the fall of the Babylonian empire. The Assyrians constructed three major cities—Kalhu, Dur Sharrukin, and Nineveh. The spaces of these cities were carefully controlled to create an impression of magnificence and grandeur and were embellished with expansive relief sculptures depicting warfare, hunting, and ceremonial scenes.

Sargon II and dignitary.

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II and Sargon II and dignitary, was designed to awe foreign viewers with the Assyrians’ power and ferocity. The Assyrian empire collapsed when it was confronted by the newly resurgent city of Babylon.

Neo-Babylonian Influence

Babylonians enjoyed a resurgence when they destroyed the Assyrian empire at the end of the seventh century B.C.E. The most famous Neo-Babylonian ruler was Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 B.C.E.), who reconstructed Babylon in grand style and built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The Ishtar Gate

The art of Babylon continued the tradition of monumental architecture and intimidating relief sculpture, as exemplified in The Ishtar Gate.

Persian Influence

Under the Achaemenid dynasty, the Persians created the largest empire the Ancient Near East had yet seen, stretching from Iran to Egypt. Under kings Darius I (r. 521–486 B.C.E.) and Xerxes (r. 485–465 B.C.E.), they constructed a vast capital city, Persepolis.

Persepolis reflected not only continuity with Mesopotamian tradition but also the multicultural influences from the Persian Empire, Egypt, and Greece

Temples

The Sumerians lived in a world created and supervised by a pantheon of gods and goddesses who were each associated with specific natural forces or human endeavors. Emulating the power structures of the divine realm, each Sumerian city-state was under the protection of a deity. The main temple of the city was dedicated to its protective deity and located at the center of the city-state on a ziggurat, a large trapezoidal platform. The height of the ziggurat indicates the desire to reach to the heavens or connect with the deities. Ziggurats could sometimes have many levels and were used by most subsequent civilizations of Mesopotamia.

The central location of the temple is representative of the importance of the city-state deity and the impact of the deity upon daily life.

The White Temple is one of the earliest ziggurats from the city-state Uruk. As Sumerian builders did not have access to stone quarries, they built the temple from mudbrick, which was fragile. This has resulted in the erosion of the temple, but there is enough of the temple still standing to allow a dependable reconstruction.

Figural Representations, Sumerian Style

Statues of deities placed in Sumerian temples were often representations like the Mask of Waka. Masks like this were on a full-size wooden body and painted with inlaid stones and shells for eyebrows and eyes and hair of gold. Stones were very valuable and were used sparingly, as they were not commonly found, so the Mask of Waka would have been brought to Uruk at a great cost.

Mask of Waka. Uruk C. 3300-3000 B.C.E. Marble

This demonstrates the importance of the deity’s image to worshipers in Sumerian culture. The Sumerians referred to their temples as “waiting rooms,” a reflection of their belief that the deity would descend from the heavens to appear before the priests in the cella.

There were also statue representations of those who worship the deities in the Sumerian temples. The forms of the bodies of the Statues of votive figures are simplified and lack details of musculature. Standing on large, sturdy feet, each figure is erect and attentive in posture, theoretically in an expected posture of worship.

They always hold a small vessel in front of his or her body as an offering to the gods, and their hands seem to be folded in prayer around them. They have enormous, saucer-like eyes that are wide open and elevated as if they are looking at the deity and as a sign of piety. The eyes and eyebrows would be inlaid with dark stone in a similar fashion to the Mask of Waka.

These Statues of votive figures are not portraits intended to represent the physical appearance of specific people; rather, they symbolically stand in place of the worshippers, offering prayers in their place night and day in the temple.

Sculptural Status

Head of an Akkadian ruler (Sargon)

Cultures that thrived after the Sumerian culture’s decline demonstrated figural representations of leaders similar to the Sumerian representations of deities. The Akkadians ruled in Mesopotamia between the Sumerian and Neo-Sumerian periods, beginning with their first king, Sargon of Akkad.

The Head of an Akkadian ruler (Sargon) employs highly stylized elements, such as the corkscrew curls in the beard like those in the Bull-headed lyre, eyebrows, hair, and headdress, which all indicate the royalty and ideal male appearance of the leader.

While the head was initially a tribute to and symbol of the ruler’s power, damage to the left side of the face and removal of the inlaid eyes appears deliberate and suggests that the head was symbolically destroyed to put an end to its power, deprive its ability to hear and see, and end the reign of the Akkadian ruler.

Stele of Naram-Sin

The grandson of Sargon I was also portrayed in Akkadian artworks. The Stele of Naram-Sin emphasizes the authority and power in warfare of Naram-Sin using hierarchical scale. Like the Standard of Ur, the stele is read from bottom-left to the top-right.

Stele of Naram-Sin

King Naram-Sin is not only the largest figure but is also seen in the highest place on the mountain. The soldiers are portrayed as all looking up to him, further emphasizing his elevated position in their society. He and his army are shown as victorious, completely overpowering the opposing soldiers.

In contrast to the Standard of Ur, registers are not used. Space is depicted through the position of the figures, indicating a diagonal progression up the mountainside. Because the composition is set in a landscape, Naram-Sin approaches the top of the composition, confidently reaching the stars and heavens, and therefore identifying him with deities. His horned headdress is also a symbol of his association with the gods in early Mesopotamian cultures and suggests his godlike status.

Seated Gudea

In contrast to the demonstrations of power and authority of the Akkadians, the Neo-Sumerian leader Gudea presented himself not only to emphasize his power, but to also demonstrate his religious devotion. The statue’s upward gaze reflects his piety and humility before the gods, but the fact that he is seated shows that, although he is connected to the gods, he is still accessible and dedicated to his people.

Seated Gudea

His arms are strong and powerful with clearly defined musculature, indicating his political strength. His large head is meant to indicate his intelligence and wisdom. Unlike Naram-Sin, he does not wear the horned headdress of the gods. In this way, Gudea depicts his leadership rather than the art style of the Akkadian conquerors.

Powerful Narratives

From the Neo-Sumerian era, the Standard of Ur was found in the tomb of King Meskalamdug and Queen Pu-Abi, along with precious objects, or grave goods, and the bodies of servants intended for the use, enjoyment, and service of their masters in the afterlife. The standard used narrative to express both a story and support of the ruler in the story.

The Standard of Ur has two sides: one symbolizing war and one symbolizing peace. Both sides present a story and are divided into three registers. The registers are distinguished by a ground line. The images are read left to right, beginning in the lower left-hand corner and ending in the upper right-hand corner.

Similar narrative forms are included on various Sumerian artworks, including musical instruments. Musical instruments, such as lyres, were included with grave goods placed within the burial chambers. The registers on the Bull–headed lyre, like the Standard of Ur, would most likely be read from bottom to top.

Bull-headed lyre and detail from tomb at Royal Cemetery. Ur, Iraq. ca. 2600 B.C.E. Wood, gold, lapis lazuli.

It culminates with the most important figure, the man between the two bulls, who is shown in the center. The detail from the lyre depicts a banquet, just as the peace side of the standard. The attendants bring food and wine for the celebration. As in the Standard of Ur, a lyre player entertains the guests. The man at the top of the composition is clearly an important figure. Because the lyre was buried with the king in the grave, the power of the man, shown subduing two bulls, likely reflects the power and position of the king.

The Babylonians employed narrative similar to that in Sumerian artworks. In the Code of Hammurabi, a code of rules and regulations, the Babylonian ruler is depicted approaching the sun god Shamash. Shamash gives him the ring and rod, symbols of authority.

The Egyptian culture also used narrative to show the connection of the elite to deities. An extremely well-preserved example is the Last judgment of Hu-Nefer. The scroll made of papyrus, was found in the tomb of a royal priest, and was placed among the wrappings of Hu-Nefer’s mummified body to help him reach his final destination in the afterlife.

The scrolls depict scenes from what the Egyptians considered the last judgment after death—two tests presided over by Osiris, the god of the underworld. Egyptians believed the deceased were questioned about their behavior in life and their hearts were weighed. Egyptians believed the heart to house the soul. The deceased were then presented to Osiris. The figures are presented in composite view, like in the Standard of Ur.

The figure of Hu-Nefer is presented on an equal scale with the figures performing the ceremony. But the god Osiris is portrayed as much larger than the other figures, even while sitting, demonstrating Egyptian use of hierarchical scale. Similar to Hammurabi in the Code of Hammurabi, Hu-Nefer’s ability depicted alongside the gods is a symbol of his authority.

 

Power, the Assyrian Way

Another frequently depicted subject in Assyrian relief sculpture was the ritual animal hunt. Among the many animals hunted was the Mesopotamian lion. King Ashurnasirpal II aims his bow at a male lion who charges his chariot from behind while the king’s driver concentrates on steering the chariot in Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions.

Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions from the Palace of Ashurbanipal. ca. 645–640 B.C.E.

The lions are shown as ferocious adversaries who fight to the death. The king is able to defeat them and, thus, reinforces his power.

The lion hunt was an enduring theme in Assyrian art and was also shown on the walls of the citadel at Nineveh two centuries later. These hunts did not take place in the wild but were staged events. Dying Lion and the Dying Lioness demonstrate the power and ferocity of these animals and emphasize the king’s own power in overcoming them, and, like the scenes of warfare, the lion-hunt scenes implied a violent response to anyone who threatened to rebel against the Assyrian king. Although viewers today may observe the suffering of the lions with sympathy, an Assyrian viewer may have seen the creatures as vicious menaces whose slaughter by the Assyrian king represented his ability to protect his own subjects from chaos and destruction. In their use of space and specific detail, the lion hunts had propaganda functions that were similar to the images of warfare discussed previously.

Dying Lion. Palace of Ashurbanipal. Nineveh. ca. 645–640 B.C.E.

Dying Lioness. Palace of Ashurbanipal. ca. 645–640 B.C.E.

The empire of the Assyrians collapsed when they were challenged by the newly resurgent city of Babylon. Under Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon rose to prominence in the 6th century B.C.E. as a city full of decorative features like the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, seen in the reconstruction drawing of the city.

Reconstruction of Babylon. 6th century B.C.E.

Most of the city of Babylon survives only through textual accounts, such as the Greek historian Herodotus’s Histories, or through archaeological reconstruction. The historical figure of Nebuchadnezzar II is also known from the Bible as the king who destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E. The Ishtar Gate has survived in relatively good condition, and most of it has been reconstructed and is displayed in Berlin and other European museums.

The gate was constructed of mudbrick, like other structures in southern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian artists used the technique of glazed brick to approximate the appearance of stone bas-relief as seen in the Assyrian artworks.

The three animals depicted on the gates and the walls leading up to the gates are lions, bulls, and dragons. These animals were sacred to the Babylonian gods. During the Babylonian New Year’s procession, statues of the gods would be carried down the way leading up to and through the gate to their temples inside the city as the people watched.

Architecture and decoration were a ritual display of power.

The Detail of a lion is from the processional way leading up to the Ishtar gate. Each individual brick had to be molded, fired, and glazed before being assembled. The well-preserved colored bricks demonstrate how colorful Assyrian reliefs were before their paint wore away. The lion’s ferocity matches that of its Assyrian ancestors, though he stands on a ground line in an orderly fashion, not as the prey of the hunter.

Detail of lion. From processional road leading up to Ishtar Gate. Babylon. ca. 575 B.C.E. Glazed brick.

Persian Power Representations

The Neo-Babylonian resurgence was short-lived. The Persians invaded Mesopotamia in the late 6th century B.C.E., creating an empire that surpassed the territory controlled by the Assyrians. The Persian rulers traced their ancestry to a figure named Achaemenes, and thus this early Persian family of rulers was known as the Achaemenid dynasty.

The Persian kings organized a vast administrative network and system of taxation. Under kings Darius I (r. 521–486 B.C.E.) and Xerxes (r. 485–465 B.C.E.), they built the City of Persepolis, which reflected both the extent of their power and the diversity of the peoples over whom they ruled.

The central space in Persepolis was the apadana, or audience hall. It was decorated with relief sculptures reflecting the absolute power of the king over his vast empire. The Persians did not generally use hunting or battle scenes to intimidate. Rather, the decoration of Persepolis conveyed the power of the Persians through the representation of innumerable guards and soldiers, suggesting the unconquerable nature of the Persian Empire. The concept of showing power through numbers was continued in the Hall of 100 Columns.

View of the Apanda

Detail of the Guards

Hall of 100 Columns.

A testament to the king’s power, the columns were topped with bull or lion heads to suggest the Persian king had captured the fiercest animals to hold up the roof of his palace.

Double bull-capital from the Hall of 100 Columns.

Lesson Summary

The cultures of the Ancient Near East include the Sumerian, Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian (or SANBAN), followed by Persia. These cultures influenced each other by reacting to or rejecting the previous culture, evidenced in each culture’s art and architecture. Ziggurats represented reverence for the deity of the city-state within Sumerian culture and later were duplicated in other cultures as a claim to power and legitimacy in the kingdom.

Sculptures functioned as propaganda to demonstrate the power and authority within Akkadian and Neo-Sumerian cultures. Babylonian and Assyrian cities functioned as administrative centers, often fortified with gates intended to control visitors and convey the ruler’s power.

Persia succeeded the SANBAN societies and demonstrated the extent of their power and diversity of the peoples over whom they ruled in the City of Persepolis

(2) 12. White Temple and its ziggurat

Sumerian. 3,500 – 3,000 BCE.  Mesopotamian (Sumerian)

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian place of worship

Themes:

Religion
Architecture
Community
Power
Status
Place of worship
Light

White Temple and is ziggurat were built in Urek, which in modern times is Warka, in Iraq. It is made of baked mud brick, as stone was too expensive, and wood had to be imported.  The base of the ziggurat measures 40 feet.

The buttress is spaced across the surface to create a light and shadow pattern. This helps rainwater to wash down pre-designed channels and to strengthen the building.

The façade or exterior of the building, was whitewashed, with ground white shells or bone. Its purpose was to attract the sun and provide illumination. Rectangular in structure, it measures 17.5 meters by 22.3 meters.

People would ascend via staircase or ramp  as the ground plan reveals . This would bring people to the top, but not directly to the entryway (bent axis)

What is a ziggurat?

A ziggurat is a raised platform. It elevated the White Temple to make it visible.  This ziggurat is the earliest one that still exists.

Why was this Built?

The temple functioned as a dedication to the sky God Anu.  It was a place for public prayer, worship, and ritual. Priests and royalty had access to the temple at the top.

Into the Darkness

The interior of temple was very dark to symbol of the presence of the divine.  Darkness was  considered magical, mysterious, and the place where deities and supernatural forces resided.

Historical Context

This is the earliest ziggurat that survives. Neolithic civilizations placed tremendous significance on religious institutions. A temple was the spiritual, literal, economic and political center of a community. There were no burials here.

 

(2) 14. Statues of votive figures from the Square Temple of Eshnunna

Sumerian.  2,700 BCE.  Mesopotamian (Sumerian)

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian religious offerings

Themes:

Offerings
Religion
Status

Museum: Metropolitan Museum of Art

Found in Tell Azmar, Iraq, Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna were crafted from gypsum, inlaid, or embedded, with shell and black limestone. The tallest stands at 2 feet and 6 inches.

The Use of Votive Offerings

The function of votive figures was to replicate the donor, in an act of prayer to the gods. This would represent prayer 24 hours a day, as the gods were temperamental.

These would have been placed in the temple of the god Abu, the god of vegetation, facing a statue or alter of a god. These sculptures were represented on a hierarchy of scale, in that a wealthier person would have a much larger sculpture.

A Closer Look

The eyes are wide, as if in awe. Men are depicted with bare chest and arms, while woman were fully clothed for modesty.   On the backs of the sculptures are the words “ it offers prayer”.

What was Animism?

The religion in Mesopotamia was Animism, a belief that natural forces were controlled by the gods. There was a god of rain, a god of water and many more.  They also believed these gods were easily angered.

 (2) 16. Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur

Sumerian.  2,600 – 2,400 BCE.  Mesopotamian (Sumerian).

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian utilitarian object

Theme:

Rulers
War
Status
Power
Violence
Cross-cultural
Community
Duality
Trade
Funerary
Mesopotamian utilitarian object
Utilitarian

Museum: British Museum

The Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur, was found in Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq,  in what appeared to be a tomb of a soldier. A standard is something brought to war, hence the name.

The wooden box, measuring 8.5 inches tall by 19.5 inches wide is decorated with white shells, (from the Persian Gulf) lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan) and red limestone (from India). This is both a symbol of the wealth of Mesopotamian (Sumerian) groups, and cross-cultural trade.

It is not clear what the box held. Some historians think it could have been used for a musical instrument or for a coin box.

This double-sided artwork shows three registers, depicting the three segments of society. It is a historical narrative about war and peace.

Peace 

Photo above.

At the bottom, the working-class hull heavy loads, with the help of animals. In the center register, the wealthier members of society walk, with herds of animals, such sheep, rams, and goats.

At the top are the elite. The king is depicted as the largest figure, seated on a throne. Other members of the king’s group are also seated. All are raising glasses. Servants are depicted as smaller figures. Entertainers are entering to the far right.

War

At the top Sumerian king has exited his chariot. He inspects his captives who are nude. This was a way of debasing people in Mesopotamia. The middle register illustrates of the Sumerian army revealed through a line of soldiers.  At the bottom, rather than seeing many chariots, we are seeing one chariot in continuous a narrative, move from a walk to a canter to a gallop.

(2) 39. The Code of Hammurabi

Babylonian (Susian). Basalt. 1,792-1,750 BCE. Babylon (Susa, Iran). Mesopotamian (Babylonian)

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian law code

Themes:

Appropriation
Rulers
Status
Power
Text and image
Community
Commemoration

Museum: Louvre, Paris

Once again, this work is a stele or a stone slab to mark a gravesite, standing 7 feet 6 inches tall. At the top it is a relief sculpture. This is a sample of low relief. It has incised/intaglio text that is carved into the material. The figures show a twisted perspective, in that they are viewed in profile, with the shoulders facing forward. This work also shows a Hierarchy of scale. The seated figure (god) if he stood would be taller than standing figure.

Images Up Close

This stele is representational of the law and designed in three sections.

At the top left is a carved relief of King Hammurabi on the, who ruled Babylonia from 1792-1750 BCE.

To the right is Shamash, the sun god and god of justice.  This is indicated by the horned crown on his head and the beams of divine light radiating from his shoulders. The god is seated on a temple throne or ziggurat that is perched upon mountains. He is gifting the king with a rope, rod, and ring, as a sign of power. Hammurabi is speaking in greeting and gesturing. He stands respectfully in front of Shamash.

 The Text

There are three passages. The first is the justification of Hammurabi as king as well as a glorification.  Below this is a section of 300 laws, inscribed in cuneiform script, in the Akkadian language. This determines the result of any wrong actions, which has already been established through legal precedence.

For example, it says:

If a man builds a house for someone and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls and kills its owner, then the builder shall be put to death.

The third section of text is a poem praising Hammurabi’s virtues.

Function of The Code of Hammurabi

This work was crafted to ensure that the laws were known to the public. It includes images, as the literacy rate was extremely low in ancient civilizations. These laws give a sense in history to what was important in Babylonian laws.

It also glorified Hammurabi, as a pious and obedient ruler. The poem on the stele makes it clear that he is responsible for bringing the law to the people.

Context

This work is the earliest law code ever written and likely predates the Old Testament commandments. It was exhibited at the city of Sippar in the Babylonian kingdom, with  multiple copies placed around the kingdom.

(2) 25. Lamassu from the Citadel of Sargon II

Neo-Assyrian. 720-705 BCE. Mesopotamian (Assyrian)

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian guardians

Themes:

Hybrid
Protection
Guardian
Entryway
Animals in art
Architecture
Man vs. Nature
Power
Rulers

Museum: Metropolitan Museum, New York

These winged bulls, with heads of men, known as lamassu, were each carved from one alabaster stone. These massive sculptures, each 10 to 14 feet tall were guardian figures at the citadel fortress protecting the town, Dur Sharrukin, in what is now modern Khorsabad, Iraq.

These works were an expression of grandeur by Sargon II, meant to ward off enemies, both real and invisible or apotropaic.  The huge palace complex had 200 rooms, with 30 different courtyards. Much of the artwork inside showed narrative scenes of Sargon in warfare and the hunts.

Details of the Lamassu

The lamassu were made to be viewed both from the front and from the side. These works were highly decorative. Parts are carved in high relief and parts in low relief.

The crown upon the head of each lamassu contains rosettes and double horns, along with a ring of feathers along the top. The human face contains a unibrow. The wavy hair and beard form ringlets and spirals. The only part of the face that is not human are the ears. These are the ears of a bull, with earrings that dangling down.

Under his body and around legs are inscriptions in cuneiform, which declare power of the king and threaten anyone who ignores this.

The legs are a trick to the eye. There are five legs per sculpture. As you approach the lamassu you can only see two, as if the creature is standing guard. There are four as it you start to move past the animal. It creates the visual illusion that it moves to let you in!

Citadel of Sargon II. (Reconstruction drawing)

(2) 30. Audience hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes.

Persian. 520-465 BCE. Mesopotamian (Persian).

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian palace

Themes:

Palace
Power
Domestic space
Rulers
Cross-cultural
Guardian
Architecture
Community

This mud-brick building, with limestone facing was built as part of the palace for Darius I, in Persepolis, in what is today Iran. There are 72 columns and two monumental stairways, with a wooden roof. Artificial terraces were created so it could be built on higher ground. The building is 65 feet tall.

Apadana (hall) was a hypostyle, or roof raised up by multiple columns, created a forest of columns. Some have bull headed capitals. The bulls are one continuous facing, turning outward from each other, with two separate heads. Traces of color at other sites suggest these were brightly painted.

How was this Building Used?

The hall was used for used for receptions, festivals, and banquets by the king. When receiving his visitors here, he was able to display his power and magnificence.

Decoration on the interior matches the activities that would happen in the room. This included thousands of people carved into the walls, representing 23 nations.

It would later by destroyed by Alexander the Great, along with the power of Persia.

VOCABULARY

• Registers/friezes
• Lapis lazuli
• Hierarchy of scale
• Votive offering
• Cella
• Stele
• Apanda
• Z axis