Japanese Art

Japanese Art

Theme: “Nature”

Japanese art is deeply interested both in nature (and the spirits imbedded in it) and the ways in which nature relates to humans.  This is evident in architecture, ukiyo-e prints and other landscape paintings.

Historical Context

• Japanese islands were sheltered, or at least removed, from cultural and political exchanges with other regions
• Never successfully invaded
• 1854: Opened to foreign markets by American Commodore Matthew Perry
  • Shipment of ukiyo-e prints to European markets (17^th-19^th centuries Japanese woodblock prints)
  • popular themes: beautiful women, erotica, actors, sumo wrestlers, history and folk tales, landscapes, travel scenes

Shinto

The beauty of the changing seasons has always been celebrated by the people of Japan. Each season brings its own celebrations and festivals. This is also part of Shinto, Japan’s native belief system and indigenous religion. It has been preserved in and has been part of the everyday fabric of Japanese life.

Shrine Shinto had a close relationship to the Imperial royal family and was both a religion and a state. Sect Shinto originated around the 19th century and has 13 major sects organized by the founder or systematizer. Folk Shinto is based on Japanese folk beliefs. All three are interrelated.

Poetry and visual arts are part of Shinto. Kokinshu (A Collection of Poems Ancient and Modern) is the first known works of Japanese poetry, and nature is the inspiration. Shinto paintings of the Heian period show Spring blossoms Autumnal leaves and winter scenes.

The work above, from the Metropolitan Museum is entitled Birds and Flowers of the Four Seasons. It was painted in the late 16th century during the Momoyama period (1573-1615), in Japan. The work is a pair of six-panel folding screens with ink, color, gold, and gold leaf. The story moves from right to left.

Here is a close up.

Many paintings depict the transitioning of seasons. A theme in both Shinto and Buddhist art is the theme of beauty and brevity. For a more minute view of seasonal changes flowering plants and flowers become painting compositions. Decorative arts were adorned in the same way. Think ceramics, lacquerware and even kimonos.

 

Zen Buddhism

• • School of Buddhism arrived from China in the 12^th century
  • Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 6th century via Silk Road traders.
  • It quickly became associated with the Imperial Court and the elite showed status this way.
  • Reject worldliness in favor of courage, loyalty, and enlightenment
  • Taught through introspection, not books

Artistic Innovations

Painting

• Highly esteemed in Japan, particularly in form of printing
• Two-color and polychrome introduced in 18th century
• Ukiyo-e prints (17th-19th centuries Japanese woodblock prints; genre scenes are popular themes: beautiful women, erotica, actors, sumo wrestlers, history and folk tales, landscapes, travel scenes)
• “pictures of the floating world”

Architecture

Simplistic architectural designs inspired by Zen Buddhism. The buildings are typically made of wood and a single-story. The works are intended to blend into the surrounding environment.

• Patronage: Royal family members and Buddhist monasteries
• Masters had workshops with apprentice

 

(8) 197. Todai-ji.

Various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School. 743 CE; rebuilt 1700 CE.

Learning Objective: Japanese temple

Themes:

Politics
Power
Propaganda
Place of worship
Entryways
Cross-cultural
Architecture
Religion

Todai-ji in Nara, Japan was created by various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School. Material includes bronze and wood (sculpture) as well as wood with ceramic-tile roofing (architecture).

In the 8th century, this was the largest building project on Japanese soil ever. The construction was modeled after Chinese Tang architecture and sinification. It was based on the pagoda style and multi-eaved buildings.

Elaborate bracketing systems were used such as complex wooden joints instead of nails to hold the building together. Large sturdy pillars helped to funnel weight to the ground.

Cypress Wood

The Japanese have always had a close link to the natural environment and history of wood craftsmanship. An enormous amount of the material was required.  Cypress was the main wood used. It grows up to 40 meters, is naturally straight, has tight grain that easily splits into long beams and is resistant to rot.

The main Buddha Hall used 2200 acres of local forest and it had 84 massive pillars. The wood had to be brought from many miles away and came from ten different provinces.

The Purpose

• Place of worship for Buddhists and place of learning for Buddhist students
• Displayed Emperor Shomu’s power, piety, and prestige
• To unite Japanese clans under his rule, he promoted spiritual unity across the land that he was the leader of
• Todai-ji was to be the chief temple of Buddhism in Japan

During the rebuilding the Minamoto family was eager to present itself as national saviors who were pious. They wanted to seem morally superior to the Taira clan. Thus, political propaganda during each of its building phases.

Content

Todai-ji is also known as “Eastern Temple”.

SUB-IMAGE 1 Great South Gate

This is the entrance to the structure.

Local deer live here and are friendly to humans.

What is unusual here is that the first and second story are of equal width.  Usually, the second story is not as wide. So, this is meant to impress.

It uses wooden bracketing that was constructed during the reconstruction. The wooden bracketing is from Song China.

SUB-IMAGE 2 Nio Guardian Statues

Nios are aggressive guardian deities of Buddhism that were originally a Hindu idea. They justify the force by eliminating evil.

Nios are the Japanese version of vajrapani and are usually used as guardians at the gates of Buddhist temples. They are a metaphor for shoguns who will defend their Buddhist faith

The large-scale rebuilding in the 12th century created a multitude of commissions for buildings and sculptors. To fulfill demands, the Kei School of Sculpture emerged. This was the peak of Japanese sculpture.  The work was noted for the muscularity and dynamism of its figures. Sculptors such as Unkei and Keikei became famous.

The Nios are 26 feet tall, with powerful and dynamic bodies, in dramatic contrapposto.  They have bulging muscles and popping veins. The hair is pulled tightly back, and a sense of movement is created.  Originally, they were covered in black lacquer.

Joint wood block technique: layered planks, hollowed blocks, lacquered

Documents were found inside the wood bodies about the patronage.

Dramatic contrapposto: stances and symbolic meanings
◦ one hand up /down to welcome/suppress those with pure/impure hearts
◦ the open-mouthed statue ( Agyo ) on the left, pronouncing the first letter of
the Sanskrit alphabet, ah, meaning beginning or birth.
◦ the closed-mouth (Ungyo) statue on the right, pronouncing the last letter,
un, meaning the ending or death.
◦ 1988, during their 1st restoration 1988 Buddhist sacred texts were found inside

SUB-IMAGE 3 Great Buddha Hall and Great Buddha

A Kondo is a hall used for Buddhist teachings. The massive main hall held a huge bronze Buddha figure.

• Great Buddha Hall was rebuilt many times after earthquakes and fire damage
• Largest wooden structure in the world
• Headquarters of one of the largest schools of Buddhism
• There is also a Buddhist temple and monastery inside
• Two bronze stylized phoenixes on the roof (symbols of protection of the Buddha)

SUB-IMAGE 4 Great Buddha

The Great Buddha was originally created between 743 – 752 CE. It would have been complete in 749, but the snail-curly hair took an additional 3 years. At over 49 feet tall, it is Japan’s largest statue. It represents Vairocona Buddha the Buddha of wisdom and therefore must be larger than life.

The work was Commissioned by Emperor Shomu, and it required all the available copper in Japan. This was then mixed with tin to create bronze.

When completed, the Japanese court, officials and Buddhist dignitaries from China and India attended an “eye-opening” ceremony. An Indian monk painted in the Buddha’s eyes, symbolically imbuing it with life.

Daibutsu is Japanese for Giant Buddha.

Buddhism in Japan

Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 6th century via Silk Road traders.

It quickly became associated with the Imperial Court and the elite showed status this way.

During the 8th century Emperor Shomu promoted Buddhism across the state and built Todai-ji for the Kegon sect of Buddhism (earliest form of Japanese Buddhism). This was part of a large building project where he ordered temples, monasteries, and convents to be built throughout Japan’s 66 provinces.

In the 12th century, during the rebuild, there was the Gempei Civil War between the Taira and Minamoto clans. The Minamoto clan won as the Buddhists from Todai-ji had allied with them.

Taira clan burned the site in 1180 as retaliation. The destruction shocked Japan.

The Rebuild

The Minamoto elite contributed funds to rebuilding it and then looked like benefactors.

The Buddhist priest Chogen was placed in charge of reconstruction. He made three trips to China to observe what Song China was doing artistically.

In 1700 Buddha was redone.

More About Traditional Joint Block Technique

For wood sculptures, the joint block technique (yosegi zukuri-multiple-block technique) of creating sculpture was introduced, in the latter half of the 10th century. This was due primarily to the lack of large trees and a growing creative impulse to create gigantic statues. First it was developed for seated sculptures by a Fujiwara sculptor, Jocho. Later the Jocho’s style of statues was extended for standing statues.  Sculptor Unkei (1148 – 1223 AD) was well known for using this technique.

1. A schematic drawing was prepared.
2. The center log was cut into a rectangular shape.
3. The head and body were roughly carved from a center block, and other blocks were joined to it by means of clamps and/or a peg system.
4. There were five basic ways to combine blocks of wood
5. Each block was split in sections.
6. To reduce splitting due to the contraction/dilation of wood the sections were hollowed out to a thickness of two or three centimeters.
7. The pieces are rejoined permanently, and final carving completed.
8. Final modeling and finishing are followed by a coat of lacquer or covered by a lacquered cloth, and coloring and gilding are added.

Fewer knots and a thinner cross-section were preferred by artists, because these pieces tended to crack less. Wood needed to be dried in a controlled environment to avoid the exterior drying out, while the center was still moist. Shrinkage rates could also increase cracks.

Smaller trees could be used with this method, which was beneficial because at the time there was a lack of large ones. This also ensured speedier production. These smaller pieces were also more portable and could be carried back and forth to the off-site shop easily. Additionally, this prefabrication methods allowed for easier repairs of the statues.

The result was sculptures that were less expensive.

What is a Pagoda(to)

Pagoda(to) is a tiered tower with projecting roofs. It evolved from the Indian stupa.  A pagoda plays a very important role in remembering ancestral spirits, and in religion.

Differences

• One can enter a pagoda
• One can only circumambulate a stupa
• Pagoda is much taller than a stupa
• Pagoda links people with the heavenly realms by reaching higher

History

The stupa traveled from India to China via Buddhism. It developed into a structure with layers and tiers that became taller.  This influenced the Japanese on how they both designed and built pagodas.

Types of Japanese Pagodas

• Wooden pagoda
• Stone pagoda

Wooden Pagoda

1. Entrance
2. Body
3. Eaves
4. Bracket Support: Sumisonae; Hirazonae; Nakazonae
5. Finial (Sorin) All levels
6. Interiors

Structure of Wooden Pagodas

A pagoda is usually built in a square plan. Each level contains 12 pillars and a heart pillar in the center. Earth is symbolized by the square shape, while the center is the “axle of the world”.

Some Buddhist temples in Japan still feature pagodas. These are usually five levels. This represents the five elements or the godai.

These are:

• chi (earth)
• sui (water)
• ka (fire)
• fu (wind)
• ku (void, sky, or heaven).

The eaves are heavy with clay tiles, so the finial or spire is used as a counterweight. It is made from copper or iron.

The shinbashira, is an element rarely seen in Chinese or Korean pagodas. This central pillar runs from the bottom to the top. It allows all floors to be able to sway independently. This is especially important during earthquakes and typhoons.

Examples of Different Types of Wooden Pagodas

Gojunoto or 5-story pagoda

Pagoda of Toji Temple

• Kyoto, Japan
• tallest standing wooden tower and the tallest Pagoda
• Around 55 meters (180 feet) high

Pagoda of Muroji Temple

• Nara, Japan
• smallest pagoda
• 16 meters high

Pagoda of Daigoji Temple

• Kyoto, Japan
• Built in 951
• 38 meters tall

Pagoda of Horyuji Temple

• Nara, Japan (the first imperial city)
• oldest Pagoda in Japan built around 607 AD
• 50 meters high

Horyuji Temple designated a world heritage site in 1993, was founded in 607 by Prince Shotoku, who was an early promoter of Buddhism in Japan. The grounds are spacious and divided into two precincts.

Western Precinct

• Central gate (Chumon) flanked by Kongo Rikishi muscular deities
• Main hall (Kondo)
• The five-story pagoda

Eastern Precinct

• octagonally-shaped Yumedono (Hall of Visions), dedicated to Prince Shotoku with a life-sized statue of him surrounded by statues of Buddha and various monks.

Sanjunoto or 3-story pagoda

Pagoda of Ichijoji Temple

• Located in Kasai, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan
• dating from 117

Stone Pagodas (sekito)

This is the generic term for any pagoda or stupa made from stone. These are always built with an odd number of stories. These structures are more solid than the wooden variety. Initially, these acted as a grave or monument. Now, these pagodas are garden decorations.

Types of Stone Pagodas

Gorinto

• five pieces of stone
• grave marker erected for the departed

Muhoto

• pagoda shaped like an egg
• grave marking for Buddhist priests

Hoto

• pagoda associated with the Buddhist deity, Tahou nyorai

Hokyointo

• low rectangle with square body
• used as a grave marker
• images include Buddha, a Sanskrit syllable, or an umbrella with wings

Gardens and Pagodas

In Japan, quite often pagodas will be surrounded by gardens. Ponds both natural and constructed are nearby. The gardens inspire peace and a time for quiet reflection.

(8) 203. Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace

Kamakura period. Japan 1250-1300 CE

This work contains two images and is a handscroll using ink and color on paper. The handscroll was joined on their shortest side and rolled around a wooden cylinder. Each section was almost 2 feet long and 1 foot high.

The Focus

The focus of the drawing and writing in the Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace is on the battle scene. This emphasizes its violence, the skills of the samurai, as well as the luxury of the emperor and of his consorts.

The text usually precedes the illustration, but in this case, it frames it. The scroll’s inscription summarizes the events. “It was more than horrible.”

The Ongoing Battle of the Artist

The artist removes the roof of the palace and places himself at an elevated “bird’s eye” observation point.  Here, he describes every scene in detail. This technique was largely used in yamato-e paintings and creates a feeling of peeking indiscreetly.

Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace uses a continuous narration technique. The action moves from right to left in panels that are unschooled by the narrator.

A single ox carriage transports your eye in the whirlwind of carts and mounted warriors. The wheels of the cart are spinning, and people are trapped.

A few characters appear more than once. Note the courtier Fushiwara and the mounted Minamoto Yoshitomo with his samurai horned helmet tied with a chin strap. The main characters are seen pushing the retired emperor Go-Shirakawa in the carriage.

This work combines poems with drawings.

The artist uses a differentiated portraiture technique for the samurai heroes emphasizing their emotions and ruthlessness. Meanwhile the courtiers, and court ladies were depicted fugitively with stylized aristocratic dignified faces, lacking personality.

Content

Going from right to left, the hand scroll offered a cinema experience. Your eye draws imaginary diagonal lines, while following the ox cart carrying away the captured retired emperor. The use of diagonal lines emphasizes movement and disentangles the viewer from the mass of the samurai killing courtiers.

The storytelling exhibits symmetry and relies on a crescendo to capture the viewer’s attention. It starts with a nicely decorated single ox carriage. Following the carriage, the viewer gets entangled among colliding carts and warriors.

The violence escalates. It culminates as the palace is engulfed by flames. Courtiers have their necks cut. Court ladies in heavy silk dresses are ambushed by arrows and chose to commit suicide by jumping in the wells.

After kidnapping the retired emperor, the samurai flew on their horses leaving behind a disaster.  In the end a running archer followed by a samurai led the rebels far away from the palace engulfed by flames. The samurai break free. They seem to draw energy from the violence they created.

Without any remorse for the wreckage, the painting celebrates the samurai’s swift and fatal power. It is the Minamoto clan (the victors) point of view.

The brushstrokes are refined while depicting the palace, the gateways, and people at the court. The brushstrokes become brisk for the horses and the samurai.

The dramatic moment of the battle is captured using vivid red and green colors. The use of black for the palace focuses the viewer on its veranda event in which the emperor is forced to enter the cart.

The painting is intended to be realistic. The attention to detail makes it a valuable historical reference.

Function

A handscroll tells a story section, by section as it is horizontally unrolled.  Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace gives realistic details on the conflict between rival samurai clans.

It was made in the 13th century to commemorate a 12th century event, glorifying the clan Minamoto and the Samurai in general.

The mounted armored archer and their war tactics seemed to illustrate the words of the Chinese tactician Sun Tzu (The Art of War):

In raiding and plundering be like fire…Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night, and when you move, fall like a thunderbolt.

The facts in the painting happened in the end of the Heian period. The painting was commissioned in the Kamakura period (1185 -1333) and initiated by the Shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo. During the Kamakura period the samurai were an established “knightly” class and Minamoto were the shogun’s clan.

The work also has documentary value on the Heiji Rebellion (1159-60). This detail-oriented painting provides precious information on the armor, head protection and weapons of the samurai, as well as the weaponry of other foot soldiers. Observe the historical references of the clothes of courtiers and court ladies. Also look at the architecture and decoration of royal gateways and buildings.

Tradition

The hand scroll technique probably originated in India around 4th century BCE.

Around the 6th century CE., it arrived via the Silk Road all the way to Japan together with the Buddhist religious scrolls and the Chinese writing system. It took almost two centuries for Japanese Buddhists to produce their own scrolls.

The Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace is a narrative painting, called e-maki. It combines an illustrated hand scroll, with the sequential technique of the Buddhist scrolls, and the traditional Japanese painting, yamato-e, developed alongside poetry during the Heian period.

Initially e-maki depicted literary classics such as The Tale of Genji. In the military ruled Kamakura era, illustrated handscrolls often had a focus on “war tales” like this one. The action-oriented paintings or the ones detailing historical events were preferred by men. They were called otoko‐e, or “men’s paintings”. An entire set was dedicated to the events of the Heiji rebellion. Another scroll tells the story of Taira recuperating the retired Emperor and one is only remnants.

The attack on the retired emperor was insignificant, but the painting is a masterpiece of Japanese painting.

Patron

The audience of an emaki was reduced. It is an intimate object that was held in the hands of the narrator who presented the story scene by scene to a small group of listeners.

With their exquisite calligraphy and paintings, generally done by official court painters, the emaki appealed to an educated elite, such as the imperial family, the shogun, or Buddhist monks.

Setting

The scene takes place during the Heiji Rebellion at the end of the Heian period. This was known as the period of calm and tranquility. This is considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court. At the end of this era the sovereignty laid with the emperor, but in fact the power was wielded by the noble clans.

The Fujiwara and afterwards the Taira clan controlled the imperial court by marrying their daughters with the emperor and relegating the emperors to endless ceremonial functions. Japanese emperors reclaimed their power by abdicating in favor of a successor and relegating that one to conduct the ceremonies. Disputes ensued each time that the successor to the throne was chosen or an emperor retired.

By participating in all these disputes, the samurai warrior class steadily rose and made political gains throughout the entire Heian period.

In 1159, during the Heiji Rebellion the courtier Fujiwara no Nobuyori seemed the help of the samurai Minamoto no Yoshitomo to attack the palace. They started a fire and mercilessly killed courtiers and court ladies, in a bid to seize both the retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and his son from the power grip of the rival samurai clan, Taira.

Minamoto tried to control the emperor. Another scroll continues the story by telling how the Taira managed to regain control of the emperor. The continued rivalry between Minamoto and Taira led to the civil Genpei War, the destruction of the Taira and the establishment of the Minamoto Shogunate.

Connections with other works: Bayeux tapestry

(2) 59. Bayeux Tapestry.

Romanesque Europe (English or Norman). Embroidery on linen. 1066-1080 CE. 20 inches tall by 230 inches wide.

Cultural context of the artwork(s):

Storytelling

The Bayeux tapestry is an embroidered (not woven) 70-meter-long scroll telling the story of the Norman conquest of England of 1066. It is a propaganda tool which tells the story glorifying the Normands and justifying the conquest of England.

The patron was Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, William the Conqueror’s half-brother. He ordered it to embellish the newly built Bayeux cathedral.

Documentary value on the Norman and Saxon lives in the 11^th century

This was made shortly after the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The central panel of this detail-oriented embroidery provides precious information on the weaponry, armory of the Normands, on their fleet and cavalry techniques, but also on the royal banquets.

It depicts important Monuments of medieval France and England—the Mont Saint Michel, Bayeux Castle, Westminster Palace in London, and William’s castle in Rouen.

Embroidery of a star with a tail, probably refers to the Hailey’s Comet.

The embroidery consists not only of pictures, but it also has text inscriptions (tituli) that explain in Latin the scenes or single out the important characters like Edward the Confessor and Harold.

 

(8) 207. Ryoan-ji (wet and dry gardens).

Japan (Muromachi Period).1480 CE; current design likely 18th century. Japanese.

Learning Objective: Zen Buddhist garden

Themes:

Landscape
Religion
Architecture
Place of worship
Man v. nature
Status
Water

Ryoan-ji (wet and dry gardens) is a rock garden in Kyoto, Japan that measures 100 feet by 33 feet.

It has a rectangular plot of pebbles, surrounded by low earthen walls, with 15 rocks laid out in small groups on patches of moss. Rocks are encircled by white pebbles which are smooth river rock.

Spotlight on the Rocks

The rocks are in five groups with 15 rocks in total.

• 1 group of 5
• 2 groups of 3
• 2 groups of 2

The arrangement of rocks leads the viewers’ eyes from left to right. Balance is achieved by small groups which create a rhythm and overall sense of harmony.

Function

This is a Zen temple. It serves as a place of spiritual refreshment, contemplation, and rejuvenation. Since the elite practiced Zen Buddhism, this was a sign of status. It was used to incite meditation.

A Dry Garden

The dry garden was viewed from a temple deck as an exercise in enlightenment and acceptance. No matter what vantage point you have, you can only ever see 14 out of the 15 rocks. It is said that you can only see the 15th rock through attaining enlightenment.

The number 15 denotes completeness in Buddhism.

Buddhists maintain completeness is not possible.

If you TRULY accept that you can’t see the stone (that you cannot have completeness), then you become enlightened, and THEN you can see the 15th stone.

Visiting this dry garden is supposed to encourage meditation.  It is a place of contemplation and meditative practice for monks who rake the rocks daily into different patterns.

The lesson is that you can work very hard at something – and you should – but that it will be gone the next day. This doesn’t mean that we should work less hard but rather appreciate things while we do them and accept that they will end or disappear.

A Wet Garden

A wet garden is an Immersive and natural experience. Meditation and contemplation encouraged through strolling around the garden. The sound of the water and birds is meant to be calming.

This reveals the deep respect the Japanese have for the natural world, and the belief that lessons and enlightenment can be learned/attained through the natural world.

Content

This is Zen Buddhist complex and gardens.

Ryoan-ji means peaceful dragon.

A Visual of the Wet Garden

The wet garden has two small islands in lake. There is a small shrine on one of the small islands in the lake. It can be accessed through a bridge. This is a shrine to the Shinto goddess of luck.

Cherry trees abound on the island. The pond that attracts water birds.

A Visual of the Dry Garden

The dry garden is carefully raked each day by the Buddhist monks. These meticulous arrangements of rocks and pebbles are circled around each rock formation in particular patterns. It is unclear if these patterns have a particular meaning.

In 2002, a research team at Kyoto University claimed that the garden’s rocks, when viewed from the proper angle, subconsciously evoked the outline of a branching tree.

Other theories:

1. A tigress escorting her cubs across the snow
2. The Chinese character for “heart” or “mind”

The Influence of Zen Buddhist Principles

• Restraint, simplicity, and honesty are held in esteem
• Meditation
• Immersion in nature (gardens)

Context

Ryoan-ji was originally a Fujiwara aristocrat’s villa during the Heian Period. Later, a powerful warlord captured the villa and converted it to a Zen Buddhist temple in 1450 CE.

This was constructed for the Rinzai branch of Zen Buddhism that came from China in 1191 CE

Zen gardens are a principal concept of Zen Buddhism, which was a type of Buddhism that the elite practiced because it required ample time in the day for meditation, gardening, tea-drinking

More About Zen Buddhism and Gardens

Zen is the mainstream monastic form of Mahayana Buddhism in China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. The word means “meditation.” It was introduced to Japan in the 12^th century. The Samurai class were the first to embrace it.

In Zen Buddhism, it is believed that anyone can achieve enlightenment.

It is also credited with:

• the beginning of Noh theater
• the Japanese tea ceremony
• a new study hall (shoin) style of Japanese architecture
• Zen gardens

Noh theater is based off stories where an everyday person is transformed into a superhero. Highly trained actors and musicians give stage performances dressed in masks and silk finery.

Kyoto Zen Gardens: The Moss Temple

In the beginning, Japanese gardens were highly influenced by Chinese gardens. Think lakes and islands with stones for accents. Then things changed.

Saihoji 西芳寺, Saihōji, more commonly known as Kokedera 苔寺, is one of Kyoto, Japan’s Unesco World Heritage Sites.  The word Kokedera means moss temple. Here is how it began.

In 1339, a Zen master Muso Soseki transformed a Buddhist temple into a Zen monastery. A traditional Heian pond was created with some rock islands or a wet garden. Then, he crafted a dry garden with three rock islands. It was all representational. One rock symbolized a turtle. The flat rocks were considered meditation rocks. Granite rocks were layered into what looked like a waterfall.

The garden was not kept up and later moss grew all around, forming what looked like a lake. Today, it is estimated that there are 120 different types of moss growing in the gardens.

Visitors can participate in the temple’s religious activities. This involves kito and shakyo. Kito is the copying of Buddhist scriptures, and low writing desks are provided. Shakyo involves chanting, which is guided by a monk.

The Gardens of Japan

Originally from Kamukura, Muso Soseki made some of the most important gardens in his time in and around Kyoto. Between the 12th and 14th century, Kamakura was the capital of Japan. It was governed by the Samurai. Many gardens were built around a huge Zen temple called Kamakura Gozan or Five Mountains. This beautiful setting was known for its bay and expansive mountains. This region also made good use of vast farmlands.

Kyoto too had a long history of gardens for its aristocratic and dynastic cultures. The lifestyle here was different. Boating was popular.  Pond gardens and blossoming cherry trees provided a beautiful background.

Karesansui

Karesansui is a Japanese garden style which represents the abstracted natural landscape mainly by rock compositions. Early karesansui in the 13th century was built on a hillside. Many gardens in Kamakura gardens have this style. Later karensansui in the 15th and 16th century was built on flatlands using mountains as a backdrop. Many Kyoto gardens have this style.

Ryoan-ji garden once used borrowed scenery from the far away Mt. Otokoyama. Then, it added a low fence to create more dimension. Minimum elements, deck, stone edges, sand, and rock add to this.

Later design techniques became more sophisticated pertaining to rock composition, layout of steppingstones, and even the materials used.

What are some of the main characteristics of a Kamakura garden?

Kamakura is boarded by mountains on all three sides, so this was incorporated into the gardens. This technique is called borrowed scenery or incorporating background landscapes into garden compositions. No fences were used so that the gardens blended in seamlessly.

Texture and color of the background played a part in composition. Gardens had to work with the natural topography and most run through valleys.

Early Zen temples in Kamakura incorporated ponds into gardens. These would later fuse into tea style gardens.

What are some of the main characteristics of a Kyoto garden?

Kyoto is a flatland surrounded by mountains. This provided flat gardens in an urban setting. The borrowed scenery was from the very distant mountains. Water from these mountains helped to form natural ponds.

Differences

Kamukura and Kyoto styles differ due to topography and climate.

The dynamic relation with a natural landscape is one of the characteristics of Kamakura gardens. It makes a significant difference between Kamakura gardens and later karesanui gardens in Kyoto.

Similarities

There are interesting similarities between Kamakura gardens and Kyoto gardens in the later period like Japanese tea gardens and the Shugaku-in garden.

Zen monks brought the tradition of cultivating tea from China to Japan during the very early Kamakura period (1185-1333). Monks first used a tearoom, before a whole tea house was constructed. Gardens were part of the overall ambience.

Shūgaku-in is comprised of three gardens connected by gravel paths. These wind through vegetables paths and fields of rice.  There is the upper garden, middle garden, and upper garden. Emperor Gomizuno-o (1596-1680) built these gardens as a retreat just outside of Kyoto.

(8) 210. White and Red Plum Blossoms.

Ogata Korin. Japanese. 1710-1716.

 

Learning Objective: Japanese folding screen

Themes:

Landscape
Passage of time
Nature
Utilitarian
Status
Decorative arts

White and Red Plum Blossoms by artist Ogata Korin was created using ink, watercolor, and gold leaf on paper. Each stand 5 feet tall by 5 feet and 6 inches wide.

The Beauty of the Form

• Two paired paper panels
• Composition fills screen but is a simplified composition
• Pared image down to the essentials to magnify important parts
• Use of negative space (gold)
• Abstraction/simplification and naturalism exist together
• Background: subtle grid of gold leaf
• Space tips upward
• Patterned design of river shows movement
• Serpentine contour of lake
• Interplay of color, form, texture
• New method: tarashikomi (tear-a-she-KO-me) blended different colors together while the bottom layer was still wet (this is the European method of wet-on-wet–just the Japanese version.)

Function

White and Red Plum Blossoms is a meditation on the transience of nature. It is the old versus new and a lesson of human existence. What was new will become old. Yet, there are merits to each part of life.

This work also contributes to an aesthetic pleasure. To decorate for one’s house in such an expensive way shows signs of status.

Folding screens were popular forms of art and interior décor.

The Content

There are two folding screens.

On the left the white plum tree grows off the paper. It is an older tree that bends downward. It flowers with a calm, mature, stable wisdom.

On the right a red plum tree grows on the paper. It is younger, smaller, and grows upward. It has red buds that are bright, bold, energetic, and vibrant.

The stream at the center cuts through the pair of screens. It gives the sense of expanding form. The water looks to be moving because it is painted with swirls through tarashikomi.

Traditional Images of Inspiration

It was common in Japan to use traditional images of nature to inspire meditation, contemplation, and a source of healing.

Rimpa Artists and Works

In the 19th century, art historians termed artists like Korin “Rimpa” which literally means School of Korin.

Rimpa work is characterized by:

• abstraction + naturalism
• simplified compositions
• sensuality in how the paint is applied with the tarashikomi method
• Rimpa artists develop tarashikomi (wet on wet technique of applying and mixing paint; creates a swirly look)

Rimpa artists were inspired by:

• textiles (remember Korin’s family background)
• ceramics
• lacquerware which was all decorated in a traditional Japanese patterned manner

Favourite scenes included:

• Nature
• Passage of time
• Seasons
• Japanese literature (example: Tale of Genji – story of Heian Era extravagance)

About the Artist

Ogata Korin (1658-1868) was the son of a merchant family who dealt in fabrics, and textiles for kimonos. Their clients included samurai and nobility. The family owned a lot of art by artists who used traditional Japanese flattening and decorative patterns. The artist was inspired by this.

(8) 211.Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), also known as The Great Wave.

Katsushika Hokusai. Japanese.  1830-1833. Series: Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. Japanese.

Learning Objective: Japanese woodblock print

Themes:

Landscape
Man vs. nature
Print
Cross-cultural

Museum: Metropolitan Museum in NYC

Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), is an artwork by Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai.

This is a polychrome woodblock print created with ink and color on paper. Part of the Series: Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji it measures 10 by 14 inches.

Focus

Under the Wave Off Kanagawa is one of the most popular woodblock prints in the world. Being a famous Japanese work, it is also known as The Great Wave. Influenced by Dutch art, Katsushika Hokusai made this print as a part of the larger series titled Thirty-six views of Mount Fuji.

Not only was it reproduced innumerable times, but also it became a part of several modern artists’ assemblage practice, either through distorting or recreating an extended picture.

To represent a common wave, the image is also a part of the WhatsApp emoji list.

Although it is a realistic depiction, it employs optical illusion to illustrate the representation of Mount Fuji. It is essential to notice the same while being stunned by the magnanimity of the superseding wave on the left.

Content

Under The Wave off Kanagawa is a Japanese seascape Ukiyo-e print. Comprising several waves, large and tiny, it depicts Mount Fuji, which apparently alludes to the shape of the wave. Evoking a sense of fear and excitement, the interplay of the larger wave at the left, looming over the boatmen in three boats, is exceptional. The boatmen grip the planks tightly to save them from drowning against the encroaching big wave. At the same time, the dramatic variation in the angle of the boats on the waves develops a realistic representation.

The color palette is subtle and complacent. On the top left, the inscription mentions the name of the artist along with the studio. As it is a print, it was reproduced innumerable times, which eventually paved the way for popularity throughout the world.

The Great Wave is a part of the series, which depicted Mount Fuji from various perspectives and compositions. Mount Fuji, at a distance, germinates the sense of perspective that Japanese artists were privy to. With emotive turbulence and an interesting visual play, The Great Wave stands at a junction of being one of the normative works of art. The cresting wave also highlights the idea of transitory time, as it is about to recede in the vast ocean. Moreover, visually, it appears like it will engulf everything that comes in its way, men, beings, and the highest mountain of Japan, Mount Fuji.

The apparent symbolism points out the Zen approach through the teachings of Buddhism. The boatmen show a sense of preparedness in the face of chaos and impending destruction. In addition, the Ukiyo-e print represents the contrasting nature of several aspects like a deal between man and nature, natural elements of sky and water, among other attributes. Overall, it is a material idea of a Zen philosophical term called yin and yang, the two opposites.

Function

Mount Fuji serves dichotomous reason in the making of several prints by Hokusai. Not only is it a sacred mountain in Japanese culture, but also with increased tourism, the market demanded the images of the peak. Purchased as souvenirs, they were bought by townspeople who visited the city to climb the mountain as a pilgrimage. Fortunately, The Great Wave was reproduced more than 3000 times during that time. Hence, the primary purpose of the print was commerce, in which the aesthetic sensibility subverted the existing identity of the ukiyo-e technique.

Ukioy-e print techniques require common and inexpensive materials. It comprises surfaces of the block of wood, inks, and paper.

 

Dispaly of Emotion

Hokusai has explicitly represented the abstract emotions of fear, excitement against natural forces. Such moments are transitory and tend to stop in time like the large cresting wave over the boats. However, while the large wave symbolizes power, the boats and the men tell us about courage in the face of timid times. The emotional response of the men is quite evident by their pose of laying on the boat planks. They are ready to be drowned or saved by the big wave crashing overhead.

Tradition

Under the Wave off Kanagawa is an Ukiyo-e woodblock print, which was popular during the Edo period of Japan. Generally, they depicted everyday scenes in an utter simplistic rendering. They also showed middle-class women during their routine life.

Some of the Ukiyo-e prints of courtesan quarters are an impeccable collection of erotica. The term Ukiyo-e means the floating world, which metaphorically states the idea of impermanence and transitory aspects. Ukiyo-e prints were recognized by their emphasis on line and usage of bright hues.

In Ukiyo-e, the woodblock is carved using an engraver. For each color to be printed, a new block is utilized. After the blocks are ready, they are spread with inks and placed under the printing setup. The paper is placed, and the prints are rolled under the pressure. Each block with a specific color must be aligned to have a composed and accurate depiction. Technically, they were used only to create images of courtesans. However, Hokusai altered this course by using the technique for landscape prints.

In addition to the Ukiyo-e woodblock print technique, the painting discloses the influence of the Dutch on Japanese and Chinese art. Dutch were the first to render landscapes and seascapes in their artworks. At the same time, the Dutch artworks are known for their precise lines, low horizon, and utility of Prussian blue. All these elements were transferred in the Hokusai practice, which is evidently seen in The Great Wave.

The Artist and the Art

Under the Wave off Kanagawa was created as one of the thirty-six prints by Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai. Born in 1760 in Edo, which is now known as Tokyo, Hokusai discovered western prints, which came to Japan through Dutch citizens.

These prints, which emphasize perspective, influenced Hokusai’s prints. He also used shades of blue, which were prevalent in western prints. Moreover, Hokusai was also interested in experimenting with the visual play of contrasting aspects and elements. As seen in The Great Wave, the magnanimity of the large wave is balanced by the distant, in perspective, the image of Mount Fuji.

Setting

After the Meiji restoration, Japan opened trade and cultural exchange with the world, which first only happened at Nagasaki. The onset of communication with the western countries exposed a variety of Japanese art and culture to European artists.

The woodblock prints were in vogue in countries like France, among others. Many other Japanese products caught the attention of the local market as well as European artists like Claude Monet and Van Gogh, which defined the term Japonisme.

Since 1640, Japan was totally shut from the world, while sparsely interacting with China and Holland. However, with the Meiji restoration in the 1850s, the trade was forcefully opened by an American naval commodore, Matthew C. Perry. Remarkably, Hokusai works were also exhibited at the International Exposition of Paris in 1867, marking the first exposure of Japanese art to the world.

More About Japanese Paintings

Yamato-e painting flourished in Japan during the Heian period (794–1185). In the late 9^th century, Japan stopped trading with China, after several centuries. Instead, the country looked inward. This was known as “the period of calm and tranquility,” or the Heian period. The court was at the center creating innovative new trends in painting and literature.

The term yamato-e literally means “Japanese painting”. This was a term used to distinguish Japanese painting from Chinese painting.

Japanese paintings included:

• tales from Japanese literature and history
• activities and motifs associated with the four seasons
• Japanese locales
• Rich, rolling hills

The Heian Period and Onward

Later, yamato-e evolved to be not only about locale and content but also contained:

• Highly stylized figures
• Abbreviated facial features.
• Paints and thick pigment
• Clouds to hide and divide spaces
• Blown off roof tops to glimpse inside buildings (known as fukiniki yatai)

Literature

One of the most famous Japanese novels ever written is entitled Tale of Genji. It was written by Murasaki Shikibu, who was a court lady, back in the year 1000. The novel inspired painting using the fukinuki yatai technique. This allows the viewer to peak in at a private scene.

These paintings during the Heian period (794-1185) appeared on screens and sliding doors. Such doors had a functional purpose. They divided rooms and kept spaces warm. Therefore, very few survive. It is interesting to note that these doors changed with the season with complementary images for winter, spring, summer and fall.

Waka poetry developed alongside yamato-e. These poems are comprised of 31 syllables, either created with the paintings or inspired by them.

Yamato-e paintings were also painted onto handscrolls and were called emaki. These works depict classic literature. Handscrolls were unrolled and read on low tables.

Emaki were commissioned by the elite. Think the imperial elite, shogun, or monks from wealthy Buddhist temples.

Emaki were:

• Invented in India before the 1^st century
• Used for religious texts
• By the 4^th century A.D they were used in China
• It took several centuries before they reached Japan—through the spread of Buddhism
• Earliest Japanese handscroll shows the life of Buddha, created in the 8^th century A.D

The Kamakura Period (1185-1333)

During this period new genres were evident. Now that the military was in charge, there was a call for narratives around new leaders such as the Japanese monk Shinran (1173-1263) who developed a sect of Buddhism called True Pure Land. Kakunyo (1173-1263) the grandson of Shinran wrote the first biography about his grandfather. This started the trend of including the illustrated story on handscrolls, and later hanging scrolls to be displayed publicly.

Likeness Paintings or nise-e moved away from the highly stylized look and instead captured the attributes of a particular person. As poets were highly prized the theme of the Thirty-Six Immortal Poets, Japan’s very finest, became popular.

Muromachi Period (1392-1575)

Ink paintings from China threatened to overtake yamato-e, but artists from the Tosa School, the official painters to the royal court in the fifteenth century, kept these works alive.

Bamboo in the Four Seasons is a set of six panel folding screens using ink color and gold leaf on paper, in the collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is attributed to Tosa Mitsunobu and was painted between the late 15^th century and early 16^th century.

Here the illustrations tell the story moving right to left changing seasons starting in the spring and progressing to the winter. Paintings that use the four seasons as a theme are referred to as shiki-e type of yamato-e.

Tsukinami-e depict the changing of time as well, but through monthly cycles and nature is often intertwined with human forms.

Edo Period (1603-1867)

Yamato-e continued to evolve and change during the Edo period. Now, the wealthy merchant class were interested. New painters entered the market. The same themes were prevalent with new stylistic elements. Other styles also emerged.

 Decorative Rinpa style

• Artists created paintings, textiles, ceramics and lacquerware with vibrant colors and scenes from nature

Wkiya woodblock prints

• Popular themes were Kabuki actors, courtesans, romantic images

 

Below is an example of a Japanese painting (Yamato-e painting) from the Metropolitan Museum of Art that includes four hanging scrolls entitled:

親鸞上人絵伝

The work’s English title is The Illustrated Life of Shinran (Shinran shōnin eden), and the artist is unknown.

It was painted in the 17^th or 18^th century known as the Edo period (1615-1868). It shows how the traditions started in the Kamakura period carried onward.

The medium used to create the work includes ink, color, and gold on silk. Each measures approximately 52 ¼ by 30 1/2.

To read the story one must start at the bottom right of the scroll and follow the work to the left and then upward. Note how each scene is divided by clouds.

Below is another example of a handscroll painting Scenes from the life of Sakyamuni, with inscription, using ink and color on paper. The work is attributed to a follwer of Unkoku Togan.

This is the second set of three. scroll. Each has nine sections of text and paintings

The work depicts:

• Scenes from life of Shaka
• Shaka’s ascetic practices and achievement of enlightenment
• Wife of Siddharta (young Shaka) grieving to hear of his resolve to leave palace
• Siddhartha having his head shaved
• Siddhartha gaining enlightenment.

Zen Buddhism and Ink Monochrome Painting

Ink monochrome painting is closely associated with Zen Buddhism. Works such as these were first completed by monks and were religious. Subject matter included Zen patriarchs, teachers and the enlightened. Later subjects turned to nature.

Orchids and Rock, late 14th–early 15th century, Gyokuen Bonpō, Japanese, Metropolitan Museum of Art