Indigenous Americas Gallery

INDIGENOUS AMERICAS GALLERY

Indigenous Influence

Science uses the term mixture to describe when two things are blended. There are times in which you can see the different elements of a mixture—like in soil. There are also times in which you cannot, like when sugar is dissolved in water. It still looks like water, but when you taste it, the influence is there.

Geography, economics, government, belief systems, external cultural influences, and technology are influences that historically impact a culture and subsequently impact the art and architecture of that culture. European impact within the Indigenous Americas began in 1492, and you will explore the archeological and art historical impact of this influence.

Art of the Indigenous Americas is classified chronologically and geographically into two designations: Native North America and Ancient America. European influence is like sugar dissolved in water; it has permeated the art of these regions but has not defined it.

The term indigenous is important because it signifies concentration on the cultures before European influence in 1492.

Both Native North America and Ancient America have roots in Asia, stemming from the prehistoric migration, but developed independently between 10,000 B.C.E and 1492 C.E. when European influence began.

Ancient America classifies art created before 1550 C.E. south of the U.S.-Mexico border. The region is divided into three main areas of culture:

• Andean South America
• Mesoamerica
• Central America

Cultural influences in these regions include the:

• Chavín
• Olmec
• Maya
• Teotihuacan
• Toltec
• and Mexica (or Aztec).

 

Andean South America: The Chavín

The Andes Mountains of South America, which cross from Peru into Bolivia, saw the development of the Chavín and similar societies. These cultures practiced shamanism, a traditional belief system in which shamans achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience and can heal the sick and communicate with the otherworld and dead. As part of shamanism, they had a devotion to the animal and plant worlds as part of the practice of shamanistic religion and stressed survival and communion with challenging environments. Chavín de Huántar was an important religious center. As a pilgrimage site and sacred space, people from the surrounding areas would travel to Chavín in search of religious experiences.

Map of the Chavín culture.

Chavín de Huántar

The Chavín de Huántar is at the site where two rivers join. Geographically is considered a tinkuay, or harmonious meeting of opposing forces, in shamanistic religion. This is significant, as travel would have been simplified for pilgrims.

The Old Temple is a flat-topped pyramid made of stone and u-shaped surrounding a round sunken plaza. The u-shape and sunken plaza indicate that this was an area for large gatherings for worship. Archeological evidence indicates that the building was added to over a series of hundreds of years, culminating in a larger temple and an additional rectangular-shaped sunken plaza. The Old Temple lacked windows and had a series of elaborate, maze-like tunnels that led to the Lanzón Stela, an ornate carved pillar that is representative of a central figure depicted as a feline head and human body that was worshiped.

Those who entered the temple to encounter the Lanzón Stela would need to rely on torches to light their way, which could enhance the possible religious visions. Relief sculptures with images similar to those on the Lanzón Stela are on the walls around the temple, further reinforcing the worship of the deity.

Chavín de Huántar: overhead view and 3/4s view. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavín. 900–200 B.C.E.

 

Chavín de Huántar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavín. 900–200 B.C.E. Stone (architectural complex); granite (Lanzón and sculpture).

Chavín de Huántar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavín. 900–200 B.C.E. Stone

 

Cross Cultural Comparison:  How does the Chavín de Huántar compare to other sacred architecture?

Chartres Cathedral

Also a pilgrimage destination, the Chartres Cathedral is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and is one of the oldest Christian shrines in France. It is the site where a piece of linen is kept that is believed to have been worn by the Virgin Mary when she gave birth to Jesus. This linen is believed to have healing powers and, therefore, is the focus of religious pilgrimage.

The European Gothic cathedral has a u-shaped cross (basic early Christian Basilica) floor plan and was constructed in several stages and is permeated with stained-glass windows. Large amounts of natural light to enter the chapel. This light was referred to as lux nova as it entered through what were considered sacred windows.

Featured on the west façade are a large, round stained-glass window and the Royal Portal. The Royal Portal features sculptures of biblical kings and queens on the columns. Above is Christ on a throne surrounded by four evangelists, an example of early Gothic sculpture.

Site plan: overhead view | Chartres Cathedral. Chartres, France. Gothic Europe. Original construction c. 1145–1155 C.E.; reconstructed c. 1194–1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass

Conclusion

Both Chavín de Huántar and Chartres Cathedral have objects that worshipers see to encounter sacred experiences, and, therefore, they functioned as pilgrimage destinations. They were both constructed in several stages to accommodate their sacred function. While Chavín de Huántar is impacted by the lack of windows and natural light, the Chartres Cathedral’s extensive stained-glass windows use an extraordinary amount of natural light to meet worship needs.

Ancient Mesoamerica and Central America

Ancient Mesoamerica and Central America encompassed what are now Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and western Honduras from 15,000 B.C.E. to 1521 C.E. and featured three major distinct cultures: the Olmec, Maya, and Mexica (or Aztec).

These cultures succeeded each other as the previous declined, functioned with similar calendars, and built pyramidal stepped structures, sites, and buildings oriented in relation to sacred mountains and celestial phenomena. Green materials like jadeite and quetzal feathers were highly valued, as they were considered rare and symbolically associated with life and death.

These three cultures placed a large emphasis on blood sacrifice in their worship of a vast group of deities, and players of a ceremonial ball game would occasionally be sacrificed. They were hierarchical: a privileged, elite class dominated the political and religious landscape, building large ceremonial complexes as monuments to victory, the gods, and the dead.

Architectural styles between the Olmec, Maya, and Mexica cultures differed greatly. Olmec pyramids began as early earthworks. Mayan temples were nine-level structures with single temples, and the Mexica culture built similar structures with twin temples. The architecture transitioned to mainly stone post-and-lintel, often faced with relief sculpture and painted bright colors.

Carved serpent head. Maya. Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico. 800–1000 C.E.

Plazas were typical for large ritual gatherings. Elaborate burials and other underground installations to honor the role of the underworld were also found. Sacred sites were renovated and enlarged repeatedly over the centuries, resulting in acropolis and massive temples.

The Olmec (1300 B.C.E.-200 C.E.)

The Olmec culture existed during the first millennium B.C.E., primarily in the Gulf Coast, Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras, and was the earliest Mesoamerican culture to build monumental sculpture. Four major Olmec centers contain the ruins of public ceremonial architecture and numerous stone monuments, with pyramids dominating the landscape. Several themes and motifs present in Olmec art and architecture are repeated throughout the history of Mesoamerica. The Olmecs valued greenstone, as green represented life and nature, producing some of Mesoamerica’s largest carvings in serpentine.

Archaeologists have reconstructed Olmec beliefs by comparing their art, architecture, and writing with later, similar cultures like the Mayans and Mexica. The earliest known religious practices were shamanistic. Shamans interacted with nature spirits like frogs, birds, and jaguars. Recurring motifs like the feathered serpent and rain deity were religiously important to the culture, and this importance is reflected within the art of the culture.

Map of the Olmec culture.

Altar of the Children

Most of the Olmec art we have relates to power and the supernatural world. A good example of a melding of these two themes can be seen in Olmec altar-thrones. These monolithic stone blocks have a flat top with a projecting edge. Originally considered altars, these blocks may have served as thrones. The front face of most altars follows a typical iconography.

A ruler, identifiable by headdress, is carved in high relief, sitting in a large niche. The niche is like a cave and symbolizes the underworld, the source of supernatural power. The power of such a ruler, therefore, comes from his association with the gods.

On Altar 5, this association deepens as we look at the child in the lap of the ruler. Although its face has been worn down, we can see a similar child carved on the side of the altar-throne in low relief.

Altar 5. Altar of the Children. Olmec. La Venta, Mexico. 900–400 B.C.E.

 Why so Mad?

Note that the child has an indented head and appears to be snarling. Archaeologists have postulated that this is a were-jaguar, or jaguar-baby. Such jaguar children are common motifs, unique to Olmec art, and a lot of speculation has ensued regarding their purpose.

One speculation is that they allude to a creation myth in which a woman mates with a jaguar, giving rise to a race of jaguar-people. Some statues depict adult jaguar-people, possibly shamans involved in transformation. Olmecs repeatedly used jaguars in art.

Relief on the side of Altar 5 showing a figure holding jaguar-child. Olmec. La Venta, Mexico. ca. 900–400 B.C.E.

 Jaguar Mask

Here’s another example of jaguar usage. This jaguar mask is a mosaic pavement made of serpentine. It was purposefully covered with clay and buried in several layers of dirt. Olmecs buried many works of art, possibly for spiritual reasons.

Jaguar mask. Olmec. La Venta, Mexico. ca. 1000–600 B.C.E. Mosaic pavement.

The Warrior

Not every work of Olmec art was otherworldly or spiritual. This colossal head, known by the nickname The Warrior, is one of many such sculptures. Carved from basalt, The Warrior portrays a powerful face with high cheekbones, hooded eyes, full lips, and a broad nose. He wears a close-fitting cap, and his fleshy earlobes are weighted with large round earspools–personal ornaments inserted in the stretched space of pierced earlobes.

Approximately 134 of these enormous sculptures have been found, ranging in height from 5 to 12 feet and weighing from 5 to more than 20 tons. Each face is naturalistic and individualized. We also have evidence of the deliberate defacement of some heads. This evidence indicates that the heads were probably portraits of specific rulers and a testament to their power.

Colossal Olmec head. Monument 1, The Warrior. La Venta, Mexico. ca. 900–400 B.C.E. Basalt, 9’4″.

Stone for the colossal heads was quarried some distance away and transported over land and along rivers. This would have required great technological expertise and a huge investment in human labor.

Wait, does the Colossal Olmec Head look familiar to you?!?

It’s not every day you encounter larger-than-life statues…or is it? We bet you can think of some you are familiar with. Like the Statue of Liberty or the Great Buddha of Thailand? Here is your quest–go to the Art Index–see if you can find other examples of colossal statues in Asia, the Pacific, or the Ancient Mediterranean.

 

#195. Longmen caves

#214. Moai on platform (ahu)

#17. Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx

#199. Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat, the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia Bayon is Jayagiri (or “Victory Mountain”)

 

The Teotichucán

Map of the Teotichucán culture.

 

The Maya (250 B.C.E.-1521 C.E.)

The Maya are still very much in existence. They emerged out of the Olmec decline around 250 B.C.E primarily in modern day Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala, and their descendants still thrive and maintain their traditions and beliefs.

The Maya used astronomy to chart the movements of Venus and the moon, create tables identifying their positions in the sky, and predict solar eclipses. Astronomy helped the Maya devise a complex calendar based on a solar year of 365 days, as with our modern calendar. It was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, plus an unlucky five-day period. There was a separate sacred year lasting 260 days, as well as other calendrical cycles.

The Maya are renowned for their technological and cultural accomplishments. They developed the most sophisticated hieroglyphic writing in Mesoamerica and perfected the calendar used throughout the region. Scholars of astronomy, mathematics, plants, and animals, they built great cities with pyramids, temples, necropolises, palaces, and government structures.

Map of the Maya culture

Temple of the Giant Jaguar

To the ancient Maya, pyramids were stairways to the heavens. They would have been expressions of power and displays of propaganda for residents and strangers alike.

The pyramids often enclosed tombs. A flat area at the top provided space for a temple. Access to the temple was by a long, steep staircase. The number of staircases reflects the number of entries to the temple.

Temple I at Tikal is a 145-foot-tall pyramid that was the temple-mausoleum of Hasaw Chan K’awiil (r. 682-734 CE), the most important ruler of Tikal’s 7th CE resurgence who defeated Calakmul, Tikal’s greatest rival, in 695 CE and oversaw a significant rebuilding program in the city. The most impressive new buildings were the massive pyramids known simply as Temple I and II.

The nine tiers of the pyramid probably refer to the nine levels of the Mayan Underworld.

The ornate structure that tops this example is a roof comb, which would have been brightly painted. The talud-tablero structure of the pyramids is evidence of the lasting influence of Teotihuacán architecture.

Another typical Maya feature is the sculpture of stone slabs to depict rulers and record their greatest accomplishments. Such stelae were set up in rows along the sides of the plazas. The oldest example of these stelae in Mesoamerica was discovered at Tikal and dates to 292 CE. It shows a ruler holding in his left hand the Jaguar God of the Underworld, probably a patron god of Tikal.

 Historical Overview

Tikal Settlement at Tikal began from around 300 BCE and, first clearing away areas in the jungle, monumental architecture was built in the period up to 100 CE. The city’s prosperity was based on exploitation of natural resources such as cedar wood, dye from Brazil wood, copal resin, flint, and cultivating maize in cleared areas of rainforest and fertile swamp areas.

In 378 CE Tikal was invaded by forces from distant Teotihuacan (or at the very least trade contacts were established) with a consequent influence on the cultural practices at Tikal, from clothes to art and architecture. From the late 4th century CE, Tikal was able to further expand its sphere of influence and conquer long-time local rivals. In the 6th century CE, the power of Teotihuacan declined, and other Maya cities, notably Caracol, sought military expansion, defeating Tikal in 562 CE.

However, by the 7th century CE Tikal regained its place as an important Maya city, contemporary with such centers as Palenque, Copan, and Tikal’s greatest rival Calakmul. Tikal consisted of nine different plazas and courts connected by causeways and ramps and has, in all, over 3,000 structures.

Xibalba (Shee-bal-ba) was the name the K’iche Maya gave to the underworld, and it translates as ‘Place of Fright’, which indicates the terror the place had in the Maya imagination. Only those who died a violent death avoided Xibalba.

The underworld was a truly fearsome place, strongly associated with water. it had its own landscape, gods, and blood-thirsty predators. The Milky Way was also considered an entrance to Xibalba and the road along which souls walked to meet their fate.

The Maya, believing the underworld had nine different levels, represented this idea in the gigantic stone pyramids they built as tombs for their kings which often have nine tiers. See, for example, the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque, Temple I at Tikal, or the Pyramid of Kukulcan at Chichen Itza.

The Maya also believed that each astronomical god had its own manifestation in the underworld. For example, the Sun God K’inich Ajaw, when he was travelling through the underworld at night, became the Jaguar God of the Underworld.

The most important Maya religious book, the Popol Vuh, describes some details of the geography within Xibalba. To reach the ninth level of Xibalba, many trials and dangers had to be faced by the dead. These included the crossing of dangerous waters and high mountains, rivers of blood, attack by spinning obsidian knives and arrows, and even the sacrifice of one’s heart. To help the soul survive such an ordeal, the dead were buried or cremated with useful pieces of equipment such as weapons, tools, weaving kits, precious goods like jade, sustaining food such as hot chocolate, and even dogs (real or pottery effigies) to act as companions and guides.

Temple 1 or Temple of the Giant Jaguar (tomb of Ruler A). Tikal, Guatemala. ca. 700 C.E. Limestone.

 

El Castillo Pyramid

The most powerful of the Late Classic/Post-Classic Maya settlements is Chichén Itzá, which flourished for almost four hundred years.

The name means “opening of the wells of the Itzá.” The “wells” referred to the large cenotes, or sinkholes, at the site.

The Itzá themselves were Mayan–speaking people who arrived in the region around 800 C.E.

The most prominent structure in Chichén Itzá is the pyramid, El Castillo, and the Temple of Kukulcán. El Castillo is oriented to the four compass points, and each staircase has 91 steps. Including the platform  there are a total of 365 steps–the number of days in the year. Kukulcán was a deity approximately equivalent to Quetzalcóatl, the Feathered Serpent.

El Castillo pyramid and the Temple of Kukulcán. Chichén Itzá, Mexico. completed ca. 1000 C.E.

Pyramid of Kukulcán

The observatory at Chichén Itzá, with its snail-shaped dome and precisely oriented windows, was designed for astronomical observation.

Architecture at Chichén Itzá has features quite different from that of Tikal (first image), reflecting its more cosmopolitan population. The pyramid is lower and wider in shape than those in other cities. Rooms are larger, and the use of pillars and columns appear for the first time. Although there is a ball court, its proportions are enormous and was more likely used for ritual purposes rather than for games.

Pyramid of Kukulcán and observatory. Chichén Itzá, Mexico. completed ca. 1000 C.E.

Toltec Atlantids at Tula

One of the non-Maya influences on Chichén Itzá is that of the Toltecs, whose main city was at Tula. These atlantean columns—or atlantids—function much as caryatids did in ancient Greek architecture. Unfortunately, the roof no longer exists, but we can get a sense of the fierceness of these warrior people through their sculpture. These atlantids are spear-throwers, with drum headdresses and butterfly pectorals.

They were originally covered in bright, polychromatic paint. Each column is made of four stone drums attached with dowels, and this, coupled with the similarity in look, suggests mass production.

Toltec atlantids at Tula, Mexico. ca. 900–1180 C.E. Stone, each 16′ high

 

The Mexica (or Aztec) (1428-1521 C.E.)

After the Mayan culture, several cultures succeed each other, including the Teotihuacan and the Toltecs. The Mexica, or Aztec, Empire followed.

The history of the Mexica is documented in the Codex Mendoza. Antonio de Mendoza, the first Spanish viceroy of New Spain, commissioned native scribes and painters to produce the illustrated manuscript recounting the history of the Aztec (or Mexica) Empire. This manuscript echoes the style of Aztec manuscripts created before.

The Mexica (or Aztec) existed from 1428 to 1521 C.E. in the region of central Mexico. They began as a group of soldiers settling on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco. They called themselves the Mexica and claimed to be nomads from the mystical land of Aztlan in the north.

The Mexica would forge the Aztec Empire in the span of a century. Because of a 19th-century popularization of the name Aztec, they are referred to by the name of their empire. However, within their own culture, modern descendants still consider themselves Mexica.

The Aztec (Mexica) Empire consisted of the three city-states:

• Tenochtitlan
• Texcoco
• Tlacopan

 

Tenochtitlan was the Mexica home city. According to legend, its location was chosen by the god Huitzilopochtli, who told the Mexica their wanderings would be over when they saw the mystical sign of an eagle resting on a prickly cactus and eating a snake.

The Mexica realized that vision at the site where they later built their home city. Originally on a swampy island, Tenochtitlan would be systematically expanded using chinampas, which were artificial islands built up as agricultural fields.

Map of the Mexica (or Aztec) culture.

 

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza. Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541–1542 C.E. Ink and color on paper.

May the Gods Be with You

The Aztec (Mexica) religion had a complex combination of deities combined with ancient deities long worshiped in Mexico. The chief god worshiped was Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the South), a war, sun, and fire deity. He was the son of Coatlicue (She of the Serpent Skirt) and sibling to the Centzon Huitznahua (Four Hundred Southerners) and Coyolxauhqui (She of the Golden Bells).

The Centzon Huitznahua and Coyolxauhqui were jealous when they discovered that Coatlicue was pregnant with Huitzilopochtli and murdered her. Then, at the moment of her death, she gave birth to Huitzilopochtli who then killed Coyolxauhqui and most of the Centzon Huitznahua. He then dismembered Coyolxauhqui and threw her body down Coatepec Mountain.

Other deities were assimilated from the cultures the Mexica conquered, along with the arts and methods of artmaking. This is evidenced in artworks like the Olmec-style mask. The natural features, square jaw, and materials used to make this mask are examples of Olmec influence.

Sacred Cycle

The ritual cycle celebrated events in two calendars: a sacred calendar of 260 days and a solar calendar of 360 days (plus five unlucky days and nameless days). The two calendars overlapped once every 52 years, when a ritual called the New Fire Ceremony would take place.

The Aztec (Mexica) Calendar Stone, a 25-ton stone, is often mistaken for a working calendar but it is a representation of the end of times. Aztecs (Mexicas) believed that the world had cycled through previous incarnations.

In the Aztec (Mexica) account, there had been four previous suns. The fifth sun, which represents our current age, would eventually disappear from the heavens, ushering in a new age.

The Mexica practiced bloodletting and human sacrifice to please Huitzilopochtli and sustain the great cycles of the universe.

Mesoamerican calendars had commonalities with European calendars, such as visions of the end of the world, both in the past (Noah’s Flood) and in the future (the Revelation of St. John). As in the Maya Long Count, Europeans started their calendars fixed on a single date: the birth of Christ. Aztecs (Mexicas), unlike the Maya, did not use a long count rooted in a past origin.

The Aztec (Mexica) Calendar Stone

Aztecs (Mexicas), like the Maya and other

Mesoamerican cultures before them, believed that the world had cycled through previous incarnations.

Calendar Stone. ca. 15th century. Mexica.

 

Second Circle

The glyphs of the ritual name days circle this artifact beneath the outer line of dual fire serpents.

Center of Ring

At the center of the Calendar Stone is the outline of the glyph for Movement, one of the day signs, and the sign for the sun of this age. Four previous suns are shown within the outline. Each name day depicts how the age ended. Four-Wind, the glyph in the upper left, marked an age of the world destroyed by lethal winds. Four-Movement, then, would supposedly end in an earthquake. Perhaps that is why the central face on the Calendar Stone (sometimes mistaken for the sun god) is the face of the earth monster with her claws holding human hearts. This stone was likely placed on the ground to be a recipient of sacrifices.

 

Tenochtitlan

The ruins of Tenochtitlan lie directly beneath the center of Mexico City, and at the center of Tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct with the Templo Mayor. This pyramid-temple honored Huitzilopochtli. Two staircases went up the plaza levels to the top where two sanctuaries sat side by side. It contained seven shells, or layers, of walls nestled inside each other. Walls were built around the temple to enlarge it, resulting in superimposition.

At the base of the stairs was The Coyolxauhqui Stone. The stone has the image of Coyolxauhqui’s dismembered body, accented by carvings of skulls and bones underneath that could be the representations of the Centzon Huitznahua. When the Aztecs (Mexicas) sacrificed their conquered enemies at the top of the Great Temple, they would ritualistically reenact the actions of Huitzilopochtli when he threw Coyolxauhqui’s dismembered body down the stairs.

Templo Mayor (Main Temple). Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico). Mexica (Aztec). 1375–1520 C.E.

 

The Coyolxauhqui Stone. Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico). Mexica (Aztec). 1375–1520 C.E.

The Goddess Coatlicue. Mexica. ca. 1487-1520 C.E. Basalt, 8′ 6″ high.

 

Sculpture and Sacred Space

Sculpture is a significant portion of Mexica art found in Tenochtitlan. The massive statue of Coatlicue, mother of Huitzilopochtli, contains symbolism of her death. A pair of serpent heads have come out of her neck where she has been decapitated, symbols of flowing blood. She wears a necklace of human hands, hearts, and skulls along with a skirt of snakes as evidence of the deity’s need for human sacrifice. The original setting of this statue is unknown, and it was found near Mexico City’s cathedral.

As evidenced by Templo Mayor and Chavín de Huántar, varied manifestations of a sacred space reflect the cultural and religious context. The sacred space reflects the religious and functional needs of the people or culture. The use of religious space as pilgrimage and sacrificial sites changes based on the cultural and religious need. Each site was increased and superimposed based on the religious need, used to worship deities, and experience religious experiences.

Lesson Summary

Art of the Indigenous Americas is classified chronologically and geographically into two designations: Native North America and Ancient America. Several cultures, including the Chavín, Olmec, Maya, and Mexica, comprise Ancient American art and include some of the oldest artistic traditions within colonization and migrant peoples, traditions that dominated the continent for the past 500 years. As part of worship in these cultures, artwork and architecture took on sacred functions to fulfill the needs in worship.

 

Cultural Misconception

Don’t Bury Your Head in the Sand

Have you ever heard that goldfish have a three-second memory? Or the idiom, “Don’t bury your head in the sand?” Both are common slang, or vernacular, and misconceptions.

Goldfish have a long-term memory of around three to six months. And “burying your head in the sand” is a reference to ostriches putting their heads in the ground when scared or afraid. In reality, ostriches put their heads in the ground to check on and turn their eggs, which are buried.

Cultural background influences common misconceptions and ironically causes misconceptions about other cultures.

Think about a different nationality or culture other than your own, and imagine what an example of an individual from that culture would look like, what they would wear, what they would eat, or how they would talk. You automatically have a certain idea in your head about each because you view other cultures through the perspective of your own culture.

When the Spanish Conquistadors arrived in Tenochtitlan, misconceptions influenced their reaction to the Aztec (Mexica) priests. These misconceptions fueled the conquest of Mexico—they thought that it was crucial to conquer the indigenous peoples and convert them to Christianity.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a soldier who accompanied Hernan Cortés on his expedition, wrote of his shock in seeing a group of foul-smelling priests with uncut fingernails, long hair matted with blood, and ears covered in cuts. They assumed, based on their cultural perception, that they were savages, when the priests were the most highly educated Aztecs.

The priests were performing rites in honor of the deities they worshiped, including piercing their skin with cactus spines to draw blood. This shocked the Spanish Conquistadors—they viewed the customs as degrading, and their accounts skewed the views of the King of Spain and popular opinion about Aztec (Mexica) and Ancient American culture to this day.

An individual’s cultural filter can contort the accuracies and/or purposes of Ancient American art and its traditions. Examining cultural and religious significance without the scope of your own personal cultural and religious values helps achieve an understanding of the art and architecture produced within the culture.

Overarching artistic traditions of the Ancient Americas exhibit:

• Shamanism
• unity with the natural world
• animal-based media
• focus on the spirit as opposed to the appearance of subjects
• creation of objects that have a strong function

 

Relief showing the sacrifice of a ball player, ca. 500-900 C.E.

 

 

Vessel in the shape of a jaguar, Moche culture, 100-700 C.E.

 

What’s Blood Got to Do with It?

Historically, quests to heal the human body have prompted various medical techniques. It was once thought that evil spirits brought on illness and penetrating the skull was the only way to release the spirits and the illness. This transitioned to the sickness being carried in the life force of a body—blood.

The process was simple—bad or sick blood was drained to allow the body to make new or healthy blood. Monks, surgeon barbers, and doctors practiced this by surgery, cutting, or leeches. Today, doctors use blood transfusions when someone is injured, or has cancer or organ dysfunctions in which the body cannot produce new blood.

 

Maya mask. Placeres Campeche, 250-600 B.C.E. Stucco.

 

More Than a Representation

Maya sculptures and reliefs found in temples at Yaxchilan feature images of elite men and women performing bloodletting rituals in extravagant clothing instead of images of deities. Images were carved to commemorate these events in limestone and placed at the top of doorways in important buildings like structures 33 and 40. This art was more than a representation—it was intended to transfer life force. It was participatory and active, rather than for passive viewing.

Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 C.E. Limestone (architectural complex).

 

Reliefs and Visions

The temples at Yaxchiln have several lintels with relief involving Lady Xok, the principal wife and queen of Shield of Jaguar the Great.

In Lintel 24, Lady Xok is performing a bloodletting ritual celebrating the birth of a son to one of the ruler’s other wives. While her husband provides torchlight, she is using a barbed cord to pierce her tongue to experience religious visions.

In Lintel 25, Lady Xok is alone and experiencing a vision of a warrior emerging from a snake’s mouth with a spear aimed at her. Experiences like Lady Xok’s vision appear very realistic, and there is nothing in the artwork signifying that it is a vision. It is presented as if it is occurring realistically. This is a common trait in Mesoamerican art—to display mythical events in realistic, figural detail. The connection between the spiritual and mythical was very realistic to the Mesoamerican cultures.

Culturally, the spiritual and mythical had a direct impact on their lives, and therefore were represented in a realistic fashion. There was a fine line between natural and supernatural.

Both lintels feature elaborate carving as seen on Lady Xok’s robe. The artists commissioned by royals to create these works were experts and often the second sons of royalty. The intended audiences could be gatherings of priests and nobles inside small temples or for calendrical rituals or possibly supernatural, as many pieces were placed in elaborate graves considered to be in the underworld. The common citizen would be allowed to attend ceremonies celebrating significant events, but they were not intended to view the artwork. Each lintel is also an example of the important role that elite women played in Mayan society.

 

Lintel 24. Yaxchilán. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 C.E. Limestone

 

 Lintel 25, Structure 23. Yaxchilán. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 C.E. Limestone.

 

Religious Shading

Visions and sacred themes in artwork are not localized to Ancient America but have been exemplified in various art historical periods. The Isenheim Altarpiece is a monument reflecting Catholic beliefs and incorporates several images from Catholic doctrine. Commissioned for a hospital in Isenheim, Germany that specialized in certain illnesses, it is dedicated to St. Anthony Abbott.

Many believed the painting had the power to heal those who looked upon it. Vivid imagery and use of color depict the cruelty and violence of Christ’s death on the first panel. His body is distorted, his wounds and blood are clearly visible, and his flesh is sickly green and covered in sores.

Isenheim altarpiece. Matthias Grünewald. c. 1512–1516 C.E. Oil on wood

Both the Isenheim Altarpiece and the Lintel 24 and 25 contain intense images that demonstrate the reality of pain and death. It is evident just from one scene that Lady Xok had inserted a barbed rope through her tongue, clearly showing her stretched flesh. Her blank facial expression displays the trance-like state she was in, and her vision takes on both animal and human form. The lintels show representations of royalty interacting with the gods. Isenheim Altarpiece and the Lintel 24 and 25 demonstrate not only the religious values of the cultures they were created within, but also their intended supernatural quality. Audiences were intended to interact with the pieces, and looking at them would have had a spiritual impact.

Unearthing Connections to the Past

Archaeology helps to identify specific artistic traditions of artworks—especially excavations of the cities and sites predating the European invasion. Unfortunately, many surviving works were not scientifically extracted, affecting the evidence of the work excavated. Art historians rely on hieroglyphs, specifically those of the Mayas and Mexica, to contextualize text and image, historical, and artistic elements for those cultures. Spanish chronicles by invaders, friars, and colonists provide some information about monuments and artistic practices of the last independent indigenous peoples. Ethnographic analogy can also help identify cultural continuities—present traditional practices and religious beliefs may give light to past practices and beliefs.

Nose Ornament. Chavín de Huántar.

These methods assist in finding the cultural context when there are no other methods available, by using examples from those who are culturally similar. This can give light to the possible functions of different artworks or architecture.

For example, art of the Ancient Americas contains objects that have a strong function, commonly religious. This can be in combination with animal-based works and demonstration of unity with the natural world. The Nose Ornament found at Chavín de Huántar is an example of both a religious and animal-based work.

The elite and royals wore and were buried with symbolic jewelry to demonstrate connection to deities and religious devotion. This example features two bird-like heads that attached to the ears, along with the central nostril portion.

The Olmecs had a similar practice. They represented their deities in natural forms like animals. By comparing the Chavín to a similar culture like the Olmecs, we can understand the figural representation of deities as animals in their cultural context.

No Wallflowers Here

The interaction of art and audiences is also demonstrated in similar cultures, and comparing these cultures gives us insight into the cultural background of this practice. Religious rituals using masks with animal and mythological representations were used in Native North America.

Native American tribes, which are culturally like the Ancient Americas, used transformation masks in their healing rituals. This mask is in the shape of an eagle’s head, with ornate painting and detail. The eagle was symbolic of the deities worshiped and was considered a healing animal in Native American cultures. When the wearer pulls the strings, the mask opens, revealing a human face. The human face has bird-like features, including a sharp beak-like nose and flaring nostrils, and when viewed in firelight, represents the transformation from human to eagle form.

 

Transformation mask. Kwakiutl, Northwest coast of Canada. Late 19th century C.E. Wood, paint, and string.

 Lesson Summary

“Art is a lie that makes us realize truth.”

Pablo Picasso

Art historical study enables you to understand art in the light of its cultural and religious significance and not in the scope of your own personal cultural and religious values. In Ancient America, art was figural, realistically represented mythical events, and glorified rulers. It displayed unity with the natural world and connected objects with religious function. Due to European influence, some methods other than archaeology, like ethnographic analogy, assist in finding the cultural context of a piece. Considering these elements will enable unbiased research of cultural analysis and historical research of artworks.

The Inca’s New Groove

 Cultural Chairs

Cultures in Ancient America would build upon and borrow from the previous culture as each culture developed and then weakened. The Maya thrived in the decline of the Olmec, the Teotihuacan in the decline of the Maya, and the Toltec in the decline of the Teotihuacan. The last indigenous group before the Spanish Conquest was the Mexica, or Aztec. The art of each culture influenced that of the succeeding culture. The artworks of the Mexica, for example, reflected that of the Olmec, Teotihuacan, and Toltec.

This is also true in Andean culture. The Andean region in South America was home to several cultures that lived in three significantly distinct ecosystems: the dominant Andes Mountains, a narrow desert coast, and the Amazon.

Art of these cultures is connected to nature, using, and incorporating natural elements, animal imagery, and plant imagery. The culture practiced artificial mummification, or embalming, of the dead, along with leaving items with the bodies in graves for use in the afterlife. Golden jewelry found in tombs was in natural shapes like birds and other creatures, evidence of both funerary art practices and the connection of natural elements in artworks. The architecture of the Andean region integrated the environment and was a representation of power and social hierarchy within the culture and community.

Chavín Culture

One of the oldest cultures, the Chavín, was prominent from 900-200 B.C.E. They were a religious culture whose temple at Chavín de Huántar was the destination of religious pilgrimages to experience the Lanzón Stela, an ornate carved pillar that is symbolic of a central figure represented with a feline head and a human body that was worshiped. The temple featured relief sculptures with images of the deities worshiped. Pilgrims would travel long distances in search of religious visions and messages. They would encounter the Lanzón Stela in a series of dark tunnels at the center of the temple. The Chavín culture gave way to cultures such as Nazca, Huari, Chimú, and Chankas.

Archaeological evidence indicates that a small tribe called the Inca defeated the Chankas in battle, marking the start of the Inca Empire.

Overhead view of Chavín de Huántar

 

Chavín de Huántar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavín. 900–200 B.C.E. Stone (architectural complex); granite (Lanzón and sculpture); hammered gold alloy (jewelry). TWO PICTURES

Birth, Taxes, and Death

Within the lifespan of five kings, the Inca gained control of the west coast of South America, becoming the largest nation in the world at that time, and existed for less than a century.

Inca administration was similar to that of the Roman Empire. Although ruling officials changed, local languages and ethnic cultures in the 80 provinces remained intact.

Rulers imposed conformity in religious practices and instituted the Inca language, Quechua, as the primary method of communication. Like the Roman Empire, the Inca relocated groups of people within the empire to redistribute uncooperative tribes to loyal areas, while weavers, farmers, stone workers, and artisans were moved to areas where there was a need for their skill set. This contributed to the rapid growth of the Inca Empire and established a complex system of labor taxation. This system required citizens to contribute by providing labor for community-managed lands, for construction needs, for military campaigns, or for textile production.

The goods and services produced were redistributed to the population in three ways:

• support of religious needs
• support of the emperor, construction, and military campaigns
• support of the citizens

 

Map displaying the Incan Culture (shown in black).

 

Sweat Shops, the Beginning…

The labor taxation system helped produce more than 20,000 miles of roads that encouraged travel and trade and ensured the easy mobility of armies. Inca textile production surpassed anything created before the Industrial Revolution, with thread counts as high as hundreds per inch.

The dyed woolen cloth of camelids was burned in offerings and used as clothing for golden icons—it was highly valued was and was deemed appropriate for the gods. This tunic is the highest-status textile preserved from the Inca Empire. Sixteenth-century illustrations by Guaman Poma de Ayala show Inca rulers in tunics like this one, speculating that it was made for a monarch.

The tunics of All-T’oqapu tunic. Inka. 1450–1540 C.E. Camelid fiber and cotton.

The toquapus, or square patterns woven into the fabric, were both decorative and symbols of authority. The patterns and designs on the cloth carried symbolic meaning, including indications of a person’s ethnic identity and social rank. The white-and-black checkerboard with a red V at the top in the All’T’oqapu tunic is symbolic of a tiny army uniform, indicating that its wearer was a soldier.

The All-T’oqapu tunic has many toquapus that do not follow an overriding pattern. The lack of a specific pattern suggests that the wearer rules over many people. He is both the source of order and above it.

Extensive agricultural terraces helped produce food to support the empire, and monumental architecture functioned as ceremonial and administrative centers. Examples of this architecture include Machu Picchu and Cuzco.

Machu Picchu

The City of Machu Picchu was the royal country estate of the Inca ruler Pachacuti and was utilized by the Inca both as a secret ceremonial city and as a method to institute Incan presence in the area. It resides 9,000 feet above sea level between two high peaks in the Andes Mountains. Looking down on the Urubamba River, the city allowed the Inca to observe and supervise all trade routes and to enforce Incan supervision and influence over the acquired territories.

The resident population was little more than 1,000, and stone buildings occupied terraces around central plazas. It consists of a large temple section as well as palaces, baths, storage rooms, and around 150 houses. Machu Picchu is surrounded by agricultural terraces sufficient to feed the population and watered by natural springs, and it provides an outstanding example of Inca architectural planning. The site of the city is laid out in several zones, including a lower-class residential district and the royalty area.

The City of Machu Picchu was designed with sensitivity to its surroundings.

Buildings were placed specifically so that windows and doors framed views of sacred peaks and landscape. This echoes the shamanistic views of the holiness of nature and exemplifies the instinctive grasp of the harmonious relationship of architecture to the site. The lower-status elite had only one toquapu motif and conformed to rigid design rules.

City of Machu Picchu. 

The Inca were masters of shaping and fitting stone, and they carefully selected stones echoing the shapes of the mountains beyond. This separates the artist from the laborer, as the artist placed emphasis on the harmony of the shapes of the stones. Many of the building blocks weigh 50 tons or more and are precisely sculpted and fitted together without mortar. They feature minimal ornamentation as the Inca sought to display power through the size of the buildings as compared to symbols of power.

Astronomical Observation

Ceremonially, one of Machu Picchu’s primary functions was an astronomical observatory, evidenced by the presence of the Intihuatana stone. The large, flat, ornamentation-free stone located near the main square of the city features a projection from the center, which casts a shadow as the sun moves across the sky. It has been shown to be a precise indicator of the date of the two equinoxes on March 21 and September 21, the dates when the sun crosses the equator.

Intihuatana means “hitching post of the sun” in Quecha, and at these two equinoxes, the sun stands almost directly above the pillar, creating no shadow. It is at this time that the sun is “hitched” to the rock. At these periods, the Incas held ceremonies at the stone in which they “tied the sun” to halt its northward movement in the sky.

Intihuatana stones were extremely sacred objects to the Inca people, as they were believed to be the ties of the city to the gods. There were several examples of Intihuatana stones in the Inca Empire, which gives support to the high value of the stones in ceremonies. Shamanic legends tell that when sensitive people touch their forehead to the Intihuatana stone, it opens their vision to the spirit world.

One city two functions?

Machu Picchu functioned both politically and religiously. The Incas didn’t have the market cornered on this idea. What about other cultures?

 

#21. Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut

Functioned as a temple where worshippers could pay homage to Pharaoh Hatshepsut’s immortal spirit.

#123. Nan Madol

Functioned as an administrative, residential, and ceremonial center in Micronesia. The intention was to support the power and authority of the rulers through its size.

 

#197. Todai-ji

Functioned as a Buddhist religious complex in Japan intended to utilize religious authority to reinforce imperial power.

City of Cusco

Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire, was also the symbolic and political center of the Empire. Fifty miles south of Machu Pichu, it served as the home to the ruler and local leaders along with a population of 400,000.

Cusco, which means “naval of the earth,” was planned in the shape of a puma. This plan was replicated at other sites in the Inca Empire. The puma is significant because it was a symbol of Inca power and the shamanistic reverence of nature. In the city plan, the head of the puma is at the northmost point where the fortress of Sacsahuaman is located. The body is the giant plaza at the center of the town, and the puma’s tail formed by the two rivers that join in the south.

 

City of Cusco plan
© Michael Freeman/CorbisMap of City of Cusco

 

City of Cusco, including Qorikancha (Inka main temple), Santo Domingo (Spanish colonial convent), and Walls at Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman). Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c. 1440 C.E. convent added 1550-1650 C.E. Andesite.

Cusco features the same masonry techniques observed in Machu Picchu. Stone was regarded as a special, sacred material. Incas often incorporated living rock as part of a structure. Offerings were made on natural precipices, mountaintops, and other places with untouched stone. This symbiotic relationship enabled buildings to be adapted to natural features and natural features to be incorporated into buildings and cultural events.

Incas used stone to convey political meaning as well as to interact with the spiritual world. The stones, similar to Machu Picchu, were laid without mortar and joined perfectly leaving faint lines of separation between the blocks. The stonemasons accomplished this by sanding and shaping the blocks to fit tightly together.

The Qorikancha temple serves as an example of this ancient construction technique mastered by the Inca. Distinguished by the curved surface shown on the front of the building, the Inca originally referred to this site as the “Temple of the Sun.” As a temple dedicated to the creator god Viracocha and the gods of the sun, moon, stars, and the elements, the interior of Qorikancha was coated with sheets of gold, silver, emerald, and life-size statues of silver and gold. It housed mummies of some of the early rulers and was the center of a network of shrines and temples.

The invading Spanish later built the church of Santo Domingo on top of the temple, converting it to fit with their religious customs. They stripped the temple of the gold, silver, jewels, and statues and used different masonry techniques to build the church directly on top of the temple. This was a statement of the disapproval of Inca beliefs and of the European mission to convert the indigenous people to their customs and religious philosophies.

Lesson Summary

“My buildings will be my legacy…they will speak for me long after I’m gone.”

Julia Morgan

Native North America

Ancient American civilizations like the Chavín, Olmec, Maya, Mexica, and Inca grew at an exceptional rate, resulting in densely inhabited agricultural regions until 1534 and the European colonization. But Native North America, the other region in Ancient America, did not have the same vast population.

Native North America includes cultures north of the U.S.-Mexico border from ancient times to the present. They were primarily hunter-gatherers, though agriculture appeared early in some cases. The indigenous peoples were widespread, unlike those in Ancient America, which had large populations close together.

There are several regional subunits, including the Northwest Coast, Southwest, Plains, Eastern Woodlands, and Pueblo, with great variance in religious practices and social organization between the regional groups.

Painted elk hide.

Commonalities were the ideas of harmony with nature, oneness with animals, respect for elders, community cohesion, dream guidance, shamanic leadership, and ritualistic participation. These shared ideas are represented in artwork that includes geometric patterning, mythical or shamanic figures, and animals.

Artworks were produced in workshops, often with a master training an apprentice. The gender of an artist impacted artistry specialization. Art was produced at the request of a tribal leader, elder, or family member and would be viewed by the tribe in rituals, like in Painted elk hide.

There are vivid images in red, yellow, green, and blue of the tribe performing a Sun Dance ritual. On the outside, warriors riding horses can be seen hunting buffalo. A lack of evidence doesn’t clarify if these events are occurring at the same time or separately.

Storytelling like this often took place in paintings on hides. Animals were sacred to the indigenous Native Americans, so the use of an elk hide is significant. All animal parts were used to honor the animal. Native American painters would depict important events like battles, buffalo hunts, or ceremonies. These paintings functioned as records for the tribes and would be hung on the wall or worn by one of the warriors or tribal leaders as a tribute to their accomplishments.

Transformation

There are varied types of two- and three-dimensional media produced in Native North America. This includes earthworks, stone and adobe architecture, wood, and bone carving, weaving and basketry, hide painting, ceramics, quillwork, and beadwork.

Many Native American artworks function as ritual objects to wear, carry, or use during special ceremonies in front of large audiences. The more active, or involved, an artwork is, the more it is believed to transfer life force and power. This is evident in Native American tribes’ use of transformation masks with animal and mythological representations in their healing rituals.

The Transformation mask is in the shape of an eagle’s head, with ornate painting and detail. Painting in dark red, black, white, and green was used to augment and accentuate the basic form on the mask, and this effect was enhanced in firelight. When the mask opens by the wearer pulling strings, a human face is revealed.

The human face has bird-like features, including a sharp beak-like nose and flaring nostrils, and when viewed in firelight, represents the transformation from human to eagle form and a blending of those two forms. The representation of the eagle is especially significant, as it is considered a healing animal with supernatural abilities. The transformation is important as it demonstrates the oneness and harmony with nature.

 

Transformation mask. Kwakiutl, Northwest coast of Canada. Late 19th century C.E. Wood, paint, and string.

 

European Impact

The European exploration and settlement of North, Central, and South America had a significant impact on the indigenous cultures, artwork, and architecture. When the Spanish conquerors entered the Mexica Empire and Tenochtitlan, they were amazed at the richness and beauty of the land. However, when they observed the priests during bloodletting rituals, idol worship and covered in blood, they regarded the culture as a repulsive cult. They destroyed the religious symbols and illustrated books, and tore down images of deities. Missionaries suppressed local beliefs and practices and worked to spread Christianity throughout the Americas.

In the Incan Empire, smallpox killed much of the population, including the emperor. Treasures like the Maize cobs that adorned an ornamental garden outside the Coricancha were taken back to Spain and melted down. The Coricancha itself was stripped of its riches, consecrated as a Christian building, and the church of Santo Domingo built on top of it. These actions have made stratigraphic archaeology impossible, and archaeologists must rely on written ethnohistoric documents to help give cultural context to artworks.

In Native North America, experts believe that almost 90 percent of the indigenous population died from illnesses introduced by Europeans.

Many groups traded war prisoners as slaves, and the introduction of European materials influenced how the indigenous cultures lived and the artwork they produced. European influence affected the content and materials of the Native North Americans to the point that what is now considered traditional is constantly changing.

The Spanish-introduced horse has become a cultural and artistic icon along with the indigenous buffalo; raven and bear and imported materials are now considered traditional. Archaeologists must rely on alternative sources of information for Native North American art, including oral and written tribal history, written ethnohistoric documents, modern artists’ accounts and interviews, and museum records. Historical sources may be inaccurate depending on whether native or European sources are used.

King Atahualpa. German School. Paris, France. 1533 C.E. engraving

A Chachapoyan (pre-Incan) mummy. Chachapoyas, Cordillera Central, Andes Mountains, Peru. 900 C.E.-1450 C.E.

 

Cross-Cultural Fertilization

The Bandolier bag represents art produced after European influence in the Native North American cultures. Previously known as hunter bags and used by men, these bags were made of leather, embellished with quillwork, and used for various hunting and farming needs. With the introduction of imported materials like glass beads, machine-made cloth, and ribbon, the materials for the bandolier bags transitioned to cloth and glass beads.

Beadwork was learned from European settlers and initially mimicked the patterns and colors of quillwork. Quillwork was eventually replaced, and the beadwork incorporated European designs.

As the bandolier bags evolved, they were no longer serving the original function and were worn by the men in celebrations. The Bandolier bag’s strap features white, red, and turquoise swirl patterns on a black background with gold trim. The bag itself features a pink, white, and turquoise floral pattern, a reproduction of the European designs brought with the colonists. These pieces became symbols of achievement for the women who produced them.

Some Native North American techniques have been untouched by European influence. Pottery making in Native North America arose from a need for weather-resistant storage vessels. Traditionally in the Pueblo culture, women were in charge of the home and family, and therefore pottery was viewed as a female’s occupation.

As time progressed, pottery evolved and the potters began to add creative touches to their pots, transforming them into a dominant art form among the culture. In the 1880s, Pueblo pottery began to spread throughout the Southwest with the introduction of the railroad in Pueblo homelands. Trading posts were established near reservations, and tourists and collectors visited to buy Pueblo pottery. Many female potters began to sign their pieces in the 1920s.

Black-on-black ceramic vessel. Maria Martínez and Julian Martínez, Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico. c. mid-20th century C.E. Blackware ceramic.

Maria Montoya Martinez (1887–1980) was from a Pueblo village 20 miles northwest of Santa Fe. There was no need for traditional Pueblo pottery techniques in the early 1900s—it was not functional in day-to-day lives. With these techniques being lost, Martinez tried different techniques in order to help preserve the cultural art.

The Black-on-black ceramic vessel is crafted in the same manner that Pueblo craftspeople have used since the foundation of their pottery tradition. The pots are hand-coiled, not made on a pottery wheel. Martinez crafted the clay vessels, while her husband, Julian, provided their decoration. While some may say they collaborated equally, Maria received the majority of the credit for their work, reflecting the matriarchal associations with pottery making in their culture.

Lesson Summary

The Native North American cultures developed alongside those of Mesoamerican and the Andean region but were less densely populated. The regional tribes, including the Northwest Coast, Southwest, Plains, Eastern Woodlands, and Pueblo. They shared ideals of harmony with nature, oneness with animals, respect for elders, community cohesion, dream guidance, shamanic leadership, and ritualistic participation.

These shared ideals resulted in geometric patterning, mythical or shamanic figures, and animals in the artwork. The European exploration and settlement of North, Central, and South America had a significant impact on the indigenous cultures, artwork, and architecture. In spite of this, there are Native Americans today who maintain their cultural identity and uphold modern versions of ancient traditions.