Indigenous Americas 5.2

Indigenous Americas

1000 BCE- 1980 CE

TOPIC 5.2 Materials, Processes, and Techniques in Indigenous American Art

 Artistic traditions of the Indigenous Americas exhibit overarching traits and content that emphasizes unity with the natural world. There is a focus on the five-direction–north, south, east, west, and center. Cosmic geometry and spirituality based in visionary shamanism are other factors. High value is placed on animal-based media such as featherwork, bone carving, and hide painting.

Art relies on the incorporation of trade material greenstones, such as turquoise and jadeite. It also uses shells, such as the spiny oyster. In the case of Native North America, imported beads, machine-made cloth, and glazes are used.  Stylistic focus is on the essence rather than the appearance of subjects. Creation of aesthetic objects that have a strong functional aspect, reference, or utility include vessels, grinding platforms, and pipes.

In Andean Culture

The necessity to interact with three disparate environments–mountains, desert coast, and rainforest– in order to survive instilled in Andean culture and art an underlying emphasis on trade in exotic materials. A hierarchy of materials was based on availability and/ or requirement for collaboration to manipulate the materials.

Featherwork, textiles, and greenstone were most popular. Textiles were a primary medium and were extraordinarily well preserved on the desert coast, fulfilling key practical and artistic functions in the various environmental zones.

Metalwork, bone, obsidian, and stone were sometimes employed.  Ceramics and wood were also sometimes used.

Mesoamerican Architecture

Mesoamerican pyramids began as early earthworks, changed to nine-level structures with single temples, and then later became structures with twin temples. Sacred sites were renovated and enlarged repeatedly over the centuries, resulting in acropolises and massive temples.

Architecture was mainly stone post-and-lintel, often faced with relief sculpture and painted bright colors, emphasizing large masses that sculpt outdoor space. Plazas were typical for large ritual gatherings. Elaborate burials and other underground installations to honor the role of the underworld were also found.

Native American Art

Native American art media includes:

• Earthworks
• Stone and adobe architecture
• Wood and bone carving
• Weaving and basketry
• Hide painting
• Ceramics
• Quillwork
• Beadwork

More recently artworks have included painting on canvas and other European-style media.

Geometric patterning, and figures that are mythic or shamanic often appear. Animals that are popular in Native American art include: snakes, birds, bison, and horses.

 

(5) 158. Ruler’s feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II).

Mexica (Aztec). 1428-1520 CE. Mexica (Aztec).

Unit 5 Indigenous Americas

Learning Objective: Aztec headdress

Themes:

Headdress
Status
Power
Rulers
Cross-cultural
Propaganda
Ceremony
Materials with significance

Museum: World Museum in Vienna, Austria

Ruler’s feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II) is made from feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold. The work measures 3 feet 9 inches high.

The 400 feathers symbolize eternity in Aztec culture.

The quetzal feathers only come from the male bird which has two to three tail feathers. The bird is only found in Costa Rica. This is an indication of long-distance trade that Aztecs participated in. It may also be a sign of tribute gifts given to Aztecs.

Additional feathers come from the cotinga bird (blue feathers) and the red snoonbill bird (red feathers). Feathers are both iridescent and allow movement with a breeze or turning.

Leather straps attach the crown to the head of a wearer. There are also ornamentations made of pure gold.

Function

This head dress is a display of status and power by Motecuhzoma. It is part of a more elaborate costume that would have included earrings, tassels, and necklaces for rituals. The ruler would have had to walk up the steps of the Templo Mayor wearing these items. This displayed control over his own body and a superhuman strength and poise.

This work was sent by Spanish conquistador Cortes to HRE Charles V. It was meant not only to impress Charles V, but to encourage him to continue funding expeditions to the New World.

Historical Context

This headdress was likely worn by Motecuhzoma II who was the last Aztec king. He was captured, kept as a hostage, and killed by Spaniards.  Cortes conquered the Aztecs by 1521.

This headdress is exceptional. It impressed the Europeans because at the time they had never seen anything like it.

 

(5) 159. City of Cusco.

Inca. Andesite. 1440 CE; convent added 1550-1560. Inca.  

Learning Objective: Inca political/religious space  

Themes: 

Civic religion
Architecture
Appropriation
Politics
Power
Status
Place of worship

City of Cusco is located in the central highlands, of Peru, at an elevation of 11,200 feet. The city was designed to look like a miniature Inca empire.

City of Cusco is divided into two sections. The north is where the upper class lived. The word for north is hanan. The south part of the city or hurin was where the lower classes lived.  The two sections were also further divided into quarters. This reflected the four corners of the empire. It takes on the shape of a puma/ jaguar, which is the royal animal of the Inca.

The masonry is special and unique to the region. Each individual stone is fitted uniquely to the one placed next to it. This results in blocks that have a varied number of sides. The goal is to keep each stone as true to its original shape as possible, but just flattened on the sides presented. This means the  blocks were not going to be like bricks.  Stones that are fitted this way allow for a small amount of movement. This is especially important in an earthquake-prone region. The modern city of Cusco is over a fault line.

Function of the City of Cusco

• Capital of the Inca empire
• Civic center: religious; political; marketplace
• Believed to be an axis-mundi (especially the temple of Qorikancha)
• Way for Inca rulers to display their power and their ability to shape and order their empire
  • Like the Forbidden City or Trajan’s Forum

Content

• City-plan

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Curved Inka Wall of Qorikancha and Church of Santo Domingo)

• Located on the heart of the puma
• Qorikancha means “Golden House”
• Most sacred of all Inca temples/shrines (axis-mundi)
• Dedicated to the worship of the sun and sun god Inti
• Center of the empire (like the sun in the universe) and everything radiated outward from it

The masonry technique was even more time-consuming than normal Inca fitted stonework. Rather than fitting each stone together and creating an irregular-looking surface, each stone was shaped into a rectangular block and polished to a smooth finish.

The walls were then covered in sheets of gold to signify the shrine’s dedication to Inti. This would have brilliantly reflected the sun’s rays and embodied the purpose of the building.

In front was a sculpture garden with reproductions of the world in miniature containing, people, animals, and plants.

After the Spanish conquest, Qorikancha was one of many shrines turned into a Christian space.

This was turned into the Church of Santo Domingo, named after Saint Dominic, the founder of Dominican order who emphasized conversions. It was built around and on top of the original shrine which was flattened except for one wall.

This symbolized appropriation and supremacy with the Spanish over the Inca and Christianity over the Inca religion. The new building was built in Spanish Baroque style, which was fashionable at the time.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Walls at Saqsa Waman)

 

The Walls at Saqsa Waman walked down on the city of Cusco from the Northwest. The structure’s zig-zagging walls indicated its use as a fortress.

The stones were quarried and hauled into place using huge manpower. These were much larger than those used for streets and houses. This was defensive in function.

Francisco Pizarro was the Spaniard who conquered Inca.

Through his brother there is this description of the site. “On the top of a hill, they had a very strong fort surrounded with masonry walls of stones and having two very high round towers. In the lower part of this wall, there were stones so large and thick that it seemed impossible that human hands could have set them in place. They were so close together and so well fitted that the point of a pin could not have been inserted into one of the joints.”

 A Background History  

• 1438: the Empire was founded by Pachacuti
• 1440: the construction began
• 1532 – 1535: Inca were conquered by Francisco Pizarro

Rituals and Practices

The most important rituals and practices occurred in this capital city. It was considered a religious space. 

Young women were chosen from across the empire based on their virginity, beauty, nobility, and status to serve as “chosen women”. They prepared ritual food, maintained a sacred fire, wove garments for Inca rulers, made corn beer for rituals, served gods in shrines, and were given to Inca royalty or aristocrats in marriage.

Young men were brought to be educated and raised in Inca culture. They were indoctrinated into Inca culture since the empire was very vast and diverse. They became valuable advocates for Inca traditions.

(5) 160. Maize cobs. 

Inca. 1400-1533 CE. Inca.

Learning Objective: Inca metalwork

Themes:

Offering
Religion
Ceremony
Nature
Propaganda
Materials with significance
Commemoration

Museum: Denver Art Museum

Maize cobs is a work made from sheet metal/repoussée, gold and silver. The vegetable replica measures 10 inches long.

Repoussé is a French  word meaning “to push back”.  It is a type of sculptural technique where the metal is beaten from the inside to leave raised designs on the surface.

Here, Inca metalsmiths expertly combined silver and copper to mimic the internal and external components of actual corn. Inca were known for their metalwork practice. They excelled at it.

Silver metal was used for the corn. Gold metal was used for the husk. The life-sized husks are naturalistic in design.

Function

Maize cobs would have been in the Inca sculpture garden outside of the Temple of Qorikancha. The garden was used three times a year for rituals related to sowing and harvesting maize. All of these objects acted as a display of the Inti (sun god’s) power, as well as an offering of thanks.

The Art of Corn

This work illustrates the ripe ear of corn breaking through its husk. It is still on the stalk but ready to be harvested.  Individual kernels protrude.

This Work in Context

The garden contained sculpted llamas, corn, flowers, and people. All were life size, and all were made from gold and silver metal. The garden essentially became a narrative that the Inca empire told about themselves. It Illustrated their piety but also all the riches of the empire

After the Spaniards arrived in the Andes, the European invaders soon desired Inca gold and silver.

Some of the earliest Spanish chroniclers record the placement of a huge sculpture garden outside the Qorikancha. These Inca objects were looted in large quantities, and many were sent back to Spain. Maize cobs might have ended up as a gift to HRE Charles V. By 1534, his court records mention a gold maize stalk with three leaves and two ears of corn.

 Maize is corn that is blue or red but not yellow. It also represents the most important crop to the Inca. It was used for food, beer, and clothing.

 

(5) 162. All-T’oqapu tunic.

Inca. 1450-1540 CE. Inca.

Learning Objective: Inca textile

Themes:

Textiles
Status
Politics
Power
Decorative arts
Rulers
Materials with significance
Propaganda

Museum: Dumbarton Oaks, Washington DC

All-T’oqapu tunic is made from camelid fiber and cotton. It measures 3 by 2.5 feet. Weaving was usually done with a series of sturdy sticks upon which the warp (skeletal threads of the textile) was woven. There are 100 threads per centimeter.

Cotton grew well in the empire along the coast. It was made into a variety of colors.

Camelids (remember Camelid sacrum?) thrived in the highlands (llamas and alpaca are camelids)

These animal fibers are dyed more easily than plant fibers. Dyes used included cochineal red that comes from the bodies of small insects that live on cactus. It takes thousands to make even just a small amount of dye. Another color is indigo blue which comes from a flower. Both dyes are extremely expensive.

Collecting, spinning, and dyeing fibers for a textile represented a huge amount of work. This as well as weaving was completed by women.

It was traditional to try to make a t’oqapu tunic in one single piece if possible. This would indicate the skill of the weaver and would avoid cutting the cloth, which was believed to damage its spiritual power.

Function

• Symbolizes the power/status of an Inca ruler
• Social power: signifies ruler’s ability to command empire to produce this; chosen women sew
• Political power: signifies one ruler’s control over this vast territory
• Cultural power: signifies one ruler’s unification of these various clans and tribes

• Military power: one of the t’oqapu (black and white checkerboard pattern) symbolizes the Inca military; shows that the army is an extension of the Inca ruler
• Material power: control of resources and statement of the wealth of the Inca empire (expensive dyes, vast amounts of fabric)
• Religious power: ruler is dressed like Vairococha (based on creation myth)

Content  

• T’oqapu: square geometric motifs that symbolize a particular noble family/clan/group (similar to a European family crest)
• T’oqapu tunics are only allowed to be worn by those of high rank
• An all-t’oqapu is only allowed to be worn by a ruler.
• It is a single piece of cloth, woven with slit in the center for the head to pass through (just like a poncho) with “sleeves” sewn along the side to close it up.

Context

• Refers to an important Inca creation myth Viracocha (god) after creating humans sent out all the different peoples with their ethnic patterns painted on their bodies to keep order over them
• Textiles were the other major Inca artistic production (as well as metal work)
• Textiles were produced by “chosen women” who were collected across the empire for their virginity, beauty, and status to weave fine cloth.

(5) 166. Black on black ceramic vessel.

Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez. Mid-20^th-century CE. Blackware ceramic.

Learning Objective: Native American pottery (revival)

Themes:

Decorative arts
Innovation
Ceramics
Materials with significance
Revival of tradition
Commercial

Museum: National Museum of Women in the Arts

Black on black ceramic vessel crafted by Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez was created in Tewa, Puebloan, and San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico.

All raw materials had to be gathered and processed carefully so the vessel could be fired properly.

They pioneered a style of applying a matte-black design over polished-black. By doing this they were able to recreate what ancestors had done before them.

Making This Work  

• Take local iron rich clay
• Mix with powder from shards of broken pots + volcanic ash + water
• Make shape of pot by hand, without a potter’s wheel
• Dry vessel
• Scrape, sand, smooth
• Cover with slip (clay + water)
• Slip is polished by rubbing a smooth stone over the surface to flatten the clay and create a shiny finish. A difficult and time-consuming process.
• Pot was painted with designs with an iron-rich solution by using iron ore or guaco, which is a wild plant.

The Firing Process

• Pots were dried, then fired at high temperatures to change brittle clay to ceramics
• No kilns used, but fire was hot enough it could be made with manure
• Smothering the fire with powdered manure during the firing removed the oxygen while retaining the heat and this resulted in a pot that was blackened with areas without slip turning shiny black, and areas with slip turning matte black
• Achieving the deepest shades of black required about six firings.

Function

This work was created to revive traditions of Puebloan pottery making in New Mexico. This also helped to reframe Native pottery as fine art, instead of promoting it as utilitarian. To aide this, she began to sign her name on the bottom of the pots. This made her name the brand, but it also denied the communal nature of the pot. However, she began to make more money per pot.

The buyers were those that had interest in Native art, mainly white Americans. Soon, she began to sell the pots to major art galleries.

Content

• San Ildefonso style: based on 12^th-17^th century Puebloan ceramic shards (based on Neolithic designs) that had recently been discovered in excavations
• Two design registers: one across the shoulder/body and one across the neck
• Elements are abstract, but are probably depicting natural motifs
• Shape, color, and design match the contemporary and geometric Art Deco movement, popular between the two WWs

Historical Context

Before the arrival of the railroad to this area in the 1880s, pots were used for food storage, cooking, and ceremonies. When inexpensive pots appeared along the railroad, Native practices declined. The introduction of tin and metal meant cheaper, easier to make, sturdier pots.

About the Artists  

Maria Martinez is one of the best-known Native potters in part due to her connections with a larger, non-Native audience. She lived at the Pueblo of San Ildefonso from 1887 to 1980. This is located 20 miles north of Santa Fe.

She spoke Tewa, the language of the Pueblo culture. Martinez learned the ceramic techniques by watching potters from San Ildefonso. Also, she and her husband Julian were present at the excavations in their community. They drew designs that they found on pottery shards.

Making pottery had traditionally been a communal activity, where different steps in the process were shared. Maria formed the vessels by hand. Julian would decorate and paint the pots.

Traditionally, because making pots were communal, they were never signed.

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Indigenous Americas

1000 BCE- 1980 CE

TOPIC 5.3 Purpose and Audience in Indigenous American Art