Egyptian Art

EGYPTIAN ART

3,500-300 BCE

Influences

Geographic isolation: civilization is defendable, homogeneous culture = continuous traditions

Economic security: agricultural base due to inundation of the Nile = prosperity, continuity

Deeply held religious beliefs: Pharaoh son of god, hierarchical society = stability/aversion to change

Hierarchical society: Pharaoh top of “pyramid” = collective will/aversion to change

Geological substructure: plethora of stone = megalithic architecture, permanence

Belief in the Afterlife: elaborate funereal traditions, objects, and tomb architecture.

Artistic Traditions

Artistic traditions focused on representing royal figures and divinities and on the function of funerary and palatial complexes.

Works of art illustrate the active exchange of ideas and artistic styles among the Mediterranean cultures and influences on the classical world. The art of dynastic Egypt (present day Egypt and Sudan from 3000 to 30 BCE) includes pre-dynastic Egypt and Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms.

The Amarna period (New Kingdom) was important because of its cultural reform and stylistic revolution. Artistic innovations and conventions (canons) provide a foundation for subsequent artistic traditions within the region and beyond.

The art of dynastic Egypt embodied a sense of permanence. It was created for eternity and focused on preserving a cycle of rebirth. The culture represents an elaborate funerary sect whose devotees created ka statues to house the spirit after death. They also created artifacts, decorations, and furnishings for tombs.

Egyptian art incorporated mythological and religious symbolism often centered on the cult of the sun.

Development of monumental stone architecture culminated with the pyramids and innovative designs for rock-cut tombs and pylon temples, each demonstrating the importance of the pharaoh – a god-king with absolute power, descended directly from the sun god.

The Egyptian architectural construction of the clerestory is important for the history of architecture.

Representations of humans made clear distinctions between deified pharaohs and lower classes, using hierarchical proportion and idealization versus naturalism. The artistic canon of dynastic Egypt, with strict conventions of representation, use of materials, and treatment of forms, was followed for centuries with only short-lived periods of experimentation and deviation.

Theme: “Tombs, Temples, Timelessness”

This theme reminds us that much of Egyptian art was created for tombs or temples. Both the style and the media of Egyptian works can be discussed in relation to the idea of permanence and tradition.

Historical Context

Egyptian Art (3,500 – 300 BCE)

Predynastic Period (3,100 – 2686 BCE)

• Unified by King Menes (Narmer?)

Old Kingdom (2686 – 2181 BCE)

• Unyielding, strong view of Pharaoh
• Massive funerary monuments

Middle Kingdom (2055 – 1650 BCE)

• Figures are relaxed and have emotion.
• Cheaper, rock-cut tombs

New Kingdom (1550 – 1069 BCE)

• Initially, a period of splendor

Amarna Period (1352-1336 BCE)

• Nile provides stability and calm to the region.
• Isolated geographically.
• Pharaohs were god-kings.
• Strong belief in afterlife

Artistic Innovations

• Highly skilled craftsmen and artisans
• Natural quarries of diorite and limestone
• Architecture
• Mastabas: simple tombs with four sloping sides
• Pyramids: part of great complexes (necropolises) dedicated to preserving the ka or soul.
• Temples built into sides of mountains.

Sculpture

• Often carved out of a single rock (most often limestone from Memphis); not seen in Ancient Near East
• Rarely large-scale sculpture in the round
• Impress and overwhelm viewer.
• Monumental and grand

Egyptian statues were lifelike. Faces were expressive and muscles well-defined. A strong sense of balance and stasis evoked a sense of timelessness, connecting to the concept of immortality. The canon of proportion applied to statues and painted images. These statues were built to be permanent, as they housed the ka and ensured its survival.

King Djoser from the temple next to the Step Pyramid was created with the subtractive method, in which excess material is removed to sculpt the desired form. General outlines on the exterior of the block guided the artist when sculpting the stone. Incised details and smoothed surfaces completed the process. The result was a figure with a bilaterally symmetrical face and balanced body with ideally proportioned features. Damaged by tomb robbers, the statue of Djoser was carved for the serdab chamber in the funerary complex at Saqqara.

The statue of Khafre was recovered from his valley temple. The pose, sense of serenity, order, and power represent his divinity and transcendence of earthly life. The falcon god Horus rests on the back of the throne and embraces Khafre’s head with its wings.

Images of lions, papyrus, and lotus plants ornament the throne, symbolizing the king’s power over Upper (lotus) and Lower (papyrus) Egypt.

Khafre is carved from gneiss, a very hard stone like granite. The gneiss has a rare quality. In sunlight it glows blue, the color of Horus. Light from openings in the roof would have filled the room, with its white alabaster floor, with a celestial radiance.

Painting

• Funerary art: dedicated to continuing this life into the next world.
• Canon of proportion
• Gender: men are taller and ruddy brown or red; women are shorter and yellowish
• Content and peaceful scenes

Egyptian painting followed well-defined practices in the representation of figures, the identification of relationships of power, and the organization of space. These stylistic elements express a culture in which roles were clearly articulated and life was orderly.

Many works included ground lines that organize space vertically into registers. The lowest register frequently shows objects and figures nearest to the viewer.

Paintings that survived are ones produced for tombs, intended to provide attractive quarters for the deceased.

Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt was created for the tomb of Ti, a court official of the Fifth Dynasty. Intended to tell the story of Ti watching his men hunt hippopotami, Ti is represented in composite form with his weight evenly distributed on both legs, a typical Egyptian stance.

Hunters spear the hippos that fill the river. While Ti is not physically involved in spearing the hippopotami, his presence emphasizes his essential nature to the hunt and its success. Papyrus flowers, symbol of the marshes of Lower Egypt, are interspersed with birds and wild animals at the top of the relief. The spatial relationship of marsh plants and river, birds in flight, and animals on the ground is represented by these decorative conventions rather than the conventions of modern perspective.

Hieroglyphics

Hieroglyphic writing was developed toward the end of the fourth millennium B.C.E. Different from cuneiform, hieroglyphs were pictures instead of simplified symbols.

The word “hieroglyph” comes from the Greek word for “sacred carving.” Greek scholars in the 1st century B.C.E. gave the writing this name because the examples they found were chiseled into the walls of temples and public monuments.

The ability to read hieroglyphics was lost until 1799 C.E., when French soldiers uncovered an unusual stone tablet in the Egyptian town of Rosetta. The stone was covered with three distinct registers of engraved lines. Scholars recognized the writing on the bottom as Greek and would use this as a reference for decoding the hieroglyphs.

The writing at the top—hieroglyphic writing—was a mystery. Was it to be read right to left, left to right, or vertically? By comparing text on the Rosetta Stone to hieroglyphics on temple walls and monuments, researchers discovered that a cartouche surrounding hieroglyphics indicated a name. The names of kings and queens were among the first translated.

The Rosetta Stone

• The same text is written in three different languages.
• Key to the modern decoding of hieroglyphics
• Discovered during Napoleon’s 1799 excursion to Egypt.

 

(2) 13. Palette of King Narmer

Egypt (Predynastic) 3000–2920 BCE

Learning Objective:  Egyptian Ceremonial Object/Established Egyptian Artistic Traditions

Themes:

War
Violence
Rulers
Power
Deities
Utilitarian
Animals
Ritual
Commemoration
Ceremony
Victory

Museum: Egyptian Museum, Cairo

Considered so valuable, the Palette of King Narmer, has never been allowed to leave Egypt. It functioned as a ritual object dedicated to Horus. Its high quality of craftsmanship makes it invaluable.

A Beautiful Form

The large work is more than two feet in height and beautifully carved, from Greywacke siltstone in a grey-green color. King Narmer is depicted within the low relief carving, as well as other symbols, with debatable meanings.

The elaborate scenes are depicted in low relief sculpture, set in registers or horizontal zones. The images offer a twisted perspective and a delineation of musculature.

On the Front

On the front Narmer wears a cobra crown of Lower Egypt. The Hathor or cow goddess is at the top. Narmer is proceeded by four standard bearers and a priest, followed by a sandal bearer. The serpopards, a cross between a serpent and a leopard symbolizes the unification of Egypt.  At the bottom, Narmer is a bull knocking down a city fortress.

On the Back

 

On the back, Hathor is still along the top register. Hawk as the god Horus, holds a rope around a decapitated man’s head. Narmer has symbols of strength, with a bull’s tail at his waist, and wears the white crown of Upper Egypt. This crown is a symbol of the dazzling brilliance of midday sun and the nocturnal light of stars and moon. A servant holds sandals. Narmer is king/god who walks barefoot. Defeated enemies are below his feet.

 

In Daily Use

In general, palettes were part of everyday life. The function was to grind makeup and to mix eyeliner. This black substance was ringed around the eyes to prevent the glare from the sun. The design of a palette could be simple or elaborate depending on who owned it or a hierarchy of scale.

Origins and Evidence

Discovered at the site of Hierakonpolis, the capital of Egypt during the time, in an early temple of the falcon god Horus, it was found with ivory statues, knife handles, figurines of animals and stone vessels. It was customary to keep objects that had been dedicated to the gods and bury them to make way for new offerings.

This work gives evidence of a sophisticated civilization along the Nile around 3,500 BCE and the unification of Egypt (Upper – southern; Lower – northern) which was critical to future Egyptian success.

The Old Kingdom 2686-2181 BCE.

• Time of cohesion and stability
• Expanding wealth of ruling families reflected in size and complexities of tomb structures they commissioned for themselves.
• Court sculptors were repeatedly called upon to create life-size, even colossal, royal portraits in stone.
• Kings were not the only patrons, as numerous government officials could afford to have tombs decorated with elaborate carvings.

(2) 17.  Great Pyramids (Menkaure, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx.

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^the Dynasty).  2,550-2,490 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom).

Learning Objective: Egyptian Funerary Complex

Themes:

Rulers
Deities
Status
Religion
Funerary
Power
Site specific
Place of worship
Architecture
Animals
Hybrid
Commemoration

The Great Pyramid, in Giza, Egypt, is the largest of the three was built for Khufu. It took 23 years to build and is 481 feet tall and 750 feet at base length. It was constructed of 2.3 million blocks that ranged from 2.5 tons to 50 tons each.

The outer casings of the were made of white limestone, that would have shine in the bright sunlight.

At the top there would have been a gilded capstone known as a pyramidion, which reflected light, causing the pyramid to be observed from great distances.  Today, only the inner stones remain. These were roughly constructed and filled with gypsum.

To enter The Great Pyramid, one must crawl through a tight opening before entering the Grand Gallery.

 

Additional Structures

Smaller pyramids were built for Queens. Additionally, small rectangular structures, with flat roofs and slopping side, known as mastabas or benches, in Arabic, were part of the complex. It was an honour to be buried close to the king and therefore there was a hierarchy as to who was buried where.

Great Sphinx

Great Sphinx was carved in situ, meaning on site from huge rock, set in the original setting. It was originally brightly painted and is the largest carving in the world from a single stone. Great Sphinx was crafted to protects pyramids behind it, in the manner of Lamassu.

Sphinx is the Greek word for a lion body, eagle wings, and a woman’s head. It is a

Hybrid animal with the powerful man or head of pharaoh with a powerful animal,  body of lion. The lion is also a royal symbol connected to pharaohs and the sun.

A Place of Worship

Every pyramid had an adjoining mortuary temple. It was a cult of deceased kings. The dead kings became pharaohs.  Offerings were made, ceremonies performed, and cloth and food were stored here. Cult statues of pharaohs were placed inside to serve as a focus for worship.

Evolution of Egyptian Funerary Structures

1. Mastaba
2. Stepped Pyramid
3. Pyramid

 

(2) 18. King Menkaura and queen

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^th Dynasty.) 2,490-2,472 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom)

Learning Objective: Egyptian royal sculpture

Themes:

Rulers
Male/female relative
Ideal man
Ideal woman
Commemoration
Power
Devotional object

Museum: MFA in Boston

In 1910, a large collection of statuary was found in Valley Temple, connected to the Pyramid of Menkaure. This joint portrait statue carved from a smooth grey stone known as greywacke and stands 4 feet 6 inches tall. It is subtractive or carved out of one block of stone.

Both the king and queen are facing forward, in this sculpture in the round. Both have one foot stepping forward, and the king’s head is turned to the right slightly, suggesting movement.  They are lifelike but idealized and not realistic.

Perfecting Sculpture

Canon of proportion is the ideal proportions of body are based on 1 unit, a closed fist. The heel to hairline is 18 units. The knees are 5 up. The elbows are 12 up and the neck is 16 up.

A Woman of Mystery

The king is portrayed as young and lean, wearing the traditional white kilt and a pharaoh’s headdress called a nemes. Historians have suggested that because the queen is the same height as the king, and that her arms are around him in a protective way, that she is his mother and not one of his wives. Others says this could indicate her prominence or that their marital status and displays a strong, united Egypt.

The statue was not inscribed like others were. The face of King Menkaura is the same as others that were inscribed identifying him. Yet, the queen’s identity remains a mystery.

(2) 15. Seated Scribe​

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^th Dynasty).  2,620-2,500 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom)

Learning Objective: Egyptian non-royal sculpture

Themes:

Status
Funerary

Museum: Louvre Museum

Seated Scribe was found in Saqqarra, an important Old Kingdom, southwest of Cairo, Egypt.

Seated Scribe, a 20-inch tall, lifelike, sculpture in the round,  representation of a scribe, seated, with legs crossed, wearing a white kilt. The medium is limestone that has been painted. Yet the nipples are made with wooden dowels.

The Details

The eyes are made to look real, which becomes the focus of the work. Made with polished crystal, blue organic matters was added behind to keep the stone in place. It also acts as a colour for the iris. There is also an indentation representing the pupil. The eyes are etched with black eyeliner, as was the fashion of the time.

The artists took great care in carving the work, as scribes were considered an essential part of the community. They were the only ones who could write and therefore record history. His hands are beautifully crafted, and each nail is precise. In one hand there is a rolled piece of papyrus. In the other, there would have been a writing instrument that is no longer part of the work.

The focus in on the front of the sculpture, yet that is irrelevant, as it was made as s funerary sculpture.

The scribe in depicted in a natural way, with body fat exposed. Gods were portrayed, in a much more stylistic way.

A Ka Statue

The Ka is a human soul. Upon death, for the ka to live on, it must imbed itself in something.

Mummification is ideal but prohibitively expensive for most people. It must look like the person, so the ka can find it.

Most Egyptians could not even have ka statues, for they are too expensive.

The New Kingdom

• The Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, who were from the Syrian and Mesopotamian uplands.
• Introduced horses to Egypt, as well as weaponry.
• 1550 BCE: the Hyksos were expelled, and Egypt entered the period known as the New Kingdom.
• Egypt extended borders south to Nubia.
• Participated in trade with Asia and Aegean islands

Through this vast empire wealth flowed into the land. Annual tributes were paid by conquered lands. Commercial expeditions resulted in resources including silver, good, precious stones incense and exotic animals.

Not surprisingly art boomed through this golden age. Such elaborate times led to legacy of ancient Egypt including:

• The great temples of Karnak and Luxor
• The royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Kings
• Numerous private necropolises
• Stunning funerary objects
• Tomb paintings
• Relief sculpture and statuary

Famous names from this golden age include:

• Akhenaton
• Thutmose
• Hatshepsut
• Amenhotep
• Nefertiti
• Tutankhamun
• Nefertari
• Ramesses

 

(2) 21. Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty). 1,473-1,458 BCE.  Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Learning Objective: Egyptian mortuary temple

Themes:

Funerary
Place of worship
Rulers
Propaganda
Religion
Site-specific
Deities
Commemorate
Architecture

Museum: Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut is at Metropolitan Museum in NYC

Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut was built against cliffs near Luxor, Egypt, the location was picked as a dramatic location for the architecture.  Long horizontals repeat the patterns of the cliffs behind.  Patterns of dark and light are evident in cliffs and colonnades. Organic quality of stone contrasts with the construction of the temple.

Carved from living rock, it is comprised or red rock and sandstone. The architecture gives it a sense of permanence and stability. It has three colonnaded terraces. A colonnade is long sequence of columns joined by their entablature. There are also porticos or shallowed columned porches.

The Story of Hatshepsut

This temple was built by Senmut, Hatshepsut’s architect and lover.

Hatshepsut ruled Egypt for 22 years as king, even though she was female. At the time, there was no Egyptian word for queen. Just king’s wife or king’s mother. She was daughter of Thutmose I, and wife/sister of Thutmose II who died. No legitimate heir was old enough to rule. Hatshepsut took the throne over her nephew/stepson Thutmose III. She gradually increased her role of regent to that of pharaoh.

She claimed an oracle had predicted she would be pharaoh and that she was born from the gods. No knowledge of how she died or was superseded was ever found. We do know that Thutmose III destroyed many records about her after her death.

Worshipping the Sun God

This temple was built for Hatshepsut, so she could worship Amun-Rae, the sun god. Originally the gardens were planted with trees and 200 sculptures.

One of the sculptures that would have been in the garden was The Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut. The large granite sculpture shows the ruler kneeling for the sun god. An inscription on the work says she is making an offering.

Hatshepsut is dressed in the costume of male pharaohs, with a royal headdress and false ceremonial beard. Although she appears topless, her breasts are de-emphasized, and her shoulders are wide. To be displayed as a pharaoh meant to be displayed as male. She followed through with this as she wanted to convey her royal authority.

Today, this sculpture is on display at the Metropolitan Museum in NYC.

Function of Mortuary Temples

Temples were places kings worshipped their own patron gods. When the kings died, people would worship them there.

This temple was political propaganda for Hatshepsut. She wanted to  display herself as permanent and strong, while maintaining the traditions established by Narmer and carried on by Menkaure.

The Background Story

Rock-cut tombs were carved into the Valley of the Kings with entrances that were carefully concealed. This important canyon is where for 500 years during the time of the New Kingdom royals and nobles were buried.

The Valley was considered sacred to the principal feminine goddess associated with the funeral world, Nephthys. If Old Kingdom is known for pyramids, then New Kingdom is known for rock-cut tombs.

The Valley of the Queens

A new necropolis in Thebes, Egypt, during the reign of Rameses 1 (1292- 1291 BCE) was built to use for burials of royal family members. It was called The Valley of the Queens, but ancient Egyptians called it Ta Set Neferou or The Place of Beauty. The Valley of the Queens is located near the Valley of the Kings.

Several expeditions were carried out that revealed very little. Then, in 1903, an archeological team for the Museo Egizio, in Turin, Italy, led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, had three successful digs. The largest discovery was that of Queen Nefertari, Great Royal Wife of Ramesses II. The rock cut tomb was discovered at the base of the mountain, along with the tomb of princess Ahmose, and four of the king’s children.

Queen Nerfertari was the first royal spouse, hence the title and the favourite of the pharaoh. It is recorded that she could read and write hieroglyphics and was extremely educated.

The tombs had been plundered of most riches, back in ancient times. Yet the findings give detail to the life of queens in ancient Egypt.

By design alone, Nefertari’s tomb is spectacular, with relief paintings on the walls and astronomical motifs on the ceiling.

In Queen Nefertari tomb sarcophagus was destroyed, but pieces of the red granite lid and gilded coffin were excavated.

Thirty-four wooden shabtis that were once painted black were also found. A shabti is a funerary figurine, which were believed to act as servants in the afterlife, therefore the figures were made in human form. Although the queen’s shabtis were made of wood, there are examples made from clay, wax, or faience from other tombs, now in museums around the world.

Knobs and lids containing the name of King Ay have sparked historians to conclude that he must have been a relative to the queen.

The most interesting discovery was the amulet. Made from gold and blue faience, the shape is that of a djed-pillar, a sign of stability and eternal life.

Other expeditions from other countries involving archeological teams in the 1920’s and 1930’s revealed little more at the Valley of the Queens. Then , in 1971, The French Centre for the Study and Documentation of Ancient Egypt, went to carry out a photographic and archaeological survey. It was there they discovered the Tomb of Queen Tya, who was the wife of Set I (1290-1279) and the mother of Ramessus II.

Here, an interesting discovery were four canopic jars, made from limestone, with lids carved into faces. A jar with a sculpture of a human face held the queen’s liver, the baboon shaped Hapi held the lungs. The Jackal headed topper depicted Duamtef held the stomach and the jar with a falcon head Qebehseneuf held the intestines.

 

(2) 20. Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostle-Hall

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th-19^th Dynasties).  Temple: 1,550 BCE. Hall: 1,250 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom).

This temple in its massive form, made from cut sandstone and brick was the main religious center of the god Amun-Re, the sun god. It is in Karnark, near Luxor, Egypt. It  also held a precinct for the God Mut and Montu. One of the largest religious complexes in the world, with a main temple of 61 acres, today it is in a great state of disrepair.

The building has a Pylon entrance, with  two towers on a mountain with the horizon coming up between the two.

Axial building is a building with an elongated floor plan. It was constructed from sandstone and mud brick, with  an open court or space open to the sky, supported by colonnades.

 

Early development started in the Middle Kingdom (2055- 1650 B.C.E). As the city of Thebes became more important, pharaohs began to add new developments. The main part would grow to include 20 temples, a working space for priests, kitchens, and a sacred lake.

Much of the stones used in construction were ripped down in ancient times. There are still notes of interest like the tallest obelisk in Egypt that was made from red granite. It was dedicated to a female pharaoh Hatshepsut who ruled during the New Kingdom.

Hypostyle Hall

A hypostyle hall is a space with a roof that gains its support through columns. It was the first hall in history. The 134 columns made were from sandstone. Most of the columns are 22 feet high, except for the twelve columns in the centre are 62 feet tall. This allows for clerestory lighting or light to filter in from outside. Illumination before electricity!

Columns had smooth shafts, that were used to decorate and were brightly painted, with two different capitals, both bud and flower shaped.  Columns in Hypostyle Hall represent the dense clusters of reeds of the Nile, decorated like lotus, papyrus, and palm plants. Statues of gods and kings stood amongst the hypostyle columns.

The hall has a corridor axis or central path that runs down the temple. A rear sanctuary included a side room and central shrine.

More Interior Art with a Theme

Relief carvings occur all over the site. The theme carries the same message.

• The pharaohs possessed divinely granted power to maintain order on earth.
• Pharaohs were pious and dutiful worshippers of gods.

A Display of Status

Ordinary people could only go as far as the interior courtyard and could not even get to hypostyle hall. Egyptian priests and royalty were the only ones who could go beyond.

Lightness and Darkness

The space progressively dimmed from the courtyard, to shadowed hypostyle hall, to a darkened central shrine. This symbolized the belief that the deities reside in darkness. This was known to be both magical and mysterious.

Egyptian Beliefs

Every year yearly, a 27-day festival was held. Egyptians believed the gods could become exhausted and needed to be replenished.

It was believed that temples were the gods’ home on earth. Visiting a temple was the equivalent of being in the home of the divine presence. Since the gods were alive, they were given, food, drink, incense, and oils daily.

Amarna Period: 1352- 1336 BCE

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaton, abandoned the worship of most of the Egyptian gods in favor of Aton, whom he declared to be the universal and only god, identified with the sun. 

• Akhenaton is Aton’s representative on earth.

• The shift in religious focus imposed by Akhenaton introduced profound but short-lived changes into Egyptian art.

• This represents the only major break in the continuity of Egyptian art.

• In sculpture and painting, the traditional rules of proportion were abandoned, and a more expressive intimacy replaced the earlier stiffness and formality.

• Amana was used as the new capital.

Characteristics of Art During the Amarna Period

Stylized
Swollen
Androgynous and effeminate

(2) 22. Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty, Amarna Period). 1,353-1,335 BCE. Egyptian (Amarna).

Learning Objective: Amarna Period art / departure from tradition

Themes:

Religion
Family
Text and image
Rulers
Domestic
Ideal man
Private
Male
Female relationships
Stylized bodies

Museum: Egyptian Museum in Berlin

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters is a sunken relief, limestone carving, that is one foot tall, would have been a private alter in a domestic home.

The pharaoh sits holding one of their daughters, with Queen Nefertiti beside him.  Two of their daughters sit with her, one of her left and the other on her right shoulder. It is a domestic scene of informality.

All have stylized swollen bellies, long thin arms, and elongated heads. a traditional composite view of the body with twisted perspective. The children are nude with shaved heads which were the custom of the time.

Androgyny

The bodies exhibit an androgyny of indeterminate gender. Many historians believe Aton, or sun, who they worshipped, was believed to be both male and female. If  Akhenaton was the son of the sun, then he would be dominated by both genders.

This distinguished new art from Egypt’s past.

The Chosen Couple

Above them the rays of God Aten shine down. A cobra is embedded in the sunshine symbolizing that Aten is the one true God.  The sun’s rays end in ankhs, that give the king and queen the breath of life. The queen’s throne is decorated with lotus flowers, which symbolizes the unification of Egypt. Hieroglyphics on the top and around the figures explain the worship to Aton.

Backgrounder

This work signifies a style break in art, as Egyptian pharaoh, Akhenaten, who ruled from 1353- 1336 BCE changed the religion and started to worship God Aten.

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV abandoned the worship of the Egyptian gods in favor of Aton, whom he declared to be universal and only god, identified with the sun.  He changed his name to be Akhenaton (“Aton is pleased”). He had the names and images of other gods from temples defaced.

There were no priests  in this new religion. Akhenaton was Aten’s son and his representative on earth.

Analysis and Comparison of  Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and three daughters and Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and three daughters is a bas-relief carving in limestone measuring 32.5 cm in height and depicting King Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti holding their three young daughters. It was created in the 18th dynasty in Ancient Egypt, around 1350 BCE.

The bas relief is representative for Amarna period in which royalty and the solar divinity Aten are closely connected. This breaks with a three thousand of years of consistent art representation, by making the pharaoh and his family the only ones favored by the new god Aten.

The artifact is intended to be part of a household altar, and so it had both religious and decorative purposes.

The adult figures are presented in a composite view (profile view of the face, but the shoulders face the viewer exposing more of the body) , which is typical of Ancient Egyptian carvings, and they sit on low stools facing each other, which emphasizes their close marriage relationship. The inclusion of the three daughters signifies the importance of family, not just for the continuation of royal lineage, but also in the context of the Egyptian home where the altar would have been used.

The image is distinctive not only because it represents a shift from polytheism to the monotheistic worship of the sun god Aten, but mainly because it is informal. The pharaoh Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti seem to be captured playing with their children. The pharaoh supports his daughter head almost ready to kiss/hug her, while she points to her mother the queen, who at her turn holds two of her sisters. One is pointing to the pharaoh and one playing with her mother earring.

The anatomy of the pharaoh with a slight belly is a departure from the perfect anatomy of the Egyptian classical representation. The anatomy of the three daughters  with their round bellies, elongated heads and members is also a departure from the rectilinear classical forms associated with the old religion of Amon.

The iconography shows the sun disk with a cobra inside as a symbol of only one god replacing the entire Egyptian pantheon. The central position of the sun highlights the supreme importance of Aten, and its rays offer the royal family ankh signs, which signify life (Egyptian Museum Berlin, 1), while offering only hands in rest.

Remarkably, the symbols of both Lower and Upper Egypt  are not placed on the pharaoh, but under Nefertiti’s chair symbolizing that she is queen of both and that the couple ruled together. After the death of Nefertiti the religion returned to the cult of Amon. Images dating from the Amarna period were destroyed. This limestone piece is a survivor.

The encaustic icon of  Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George is a painting dating from dates from the sixth or early seventh century CE of the Byzantine Empire. Situated in St. Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, Egypt, this Byzantine icon uses wax as a medium to carry the color and it is one earliest surviving images of the Theotokos, i.e. “Mother of God”, an image that dominated Byzantine art and influenced the cult of the Virgin in both Eastern Orthodox Church and Catholic Church.

The icons were images which served as a devotional aid, focusing the attention of Christians on the key relationships between G-d and human beings. The values that are highlighted here are: a hierarchical world view in which G-d is omnipotent, served by angels who worship him, Mary who brings to the world the Messia in the form of the infant Jesus, saints who assist her and the infant Jesus. Such images of Christ and Marie were controversial in the Byzantine Empire, theologists being concerned that the people venerated the images and not G-d.

In the 8th century the emperor Leo the II the Syrian forbade the use of icons. During this period icons were destroyed by the iconoclasts, “icon breakers”, so this icon is a survivor similarly, to the Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters.  The resemblance between  the two images continues at a symbolic level.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George is also an image centered the figure of  G-d of a monotheistic religion, the Christian one. While Christ is also placed centrally in the arms of Saint Mary, G-d  is symbolically represented by a hand situated at the top and centre of the image, radiating out to the rest of the picture. The mother and child take a lower position, and all characters have haloes, i.e. golden circles of light around their heads, which denotes their holy status. Mary, the archetypal mother, sits on a golden throne, holding her child, which hints at a queenly role for her, and kingship for him, albeit of a spiritual kind. The crosses held by the two male saints are another symbol, representing the death and resurrection of Christ.

The image is far away from the natural representation of the pharaoh’s family.  The eyes of the saints and of Mary are piercing, but  they do not make eye contact between themselves or with the viewer. Theodore and George gaze forward beyond the viewer, and Mary looks slightly down as if they were preoccupied by something else. The bluish, nearly transparent angels in the third row turn their heads towards G-d. The light emanating from G-d ends on Mary’s halo reminding the viewer that Christ was the incarnation of G-d through Mary. Only the angels seem to make eye contact with the onlooker in agreement with their religious role of intercessors on behalf of the believer.

Both artifacts act as a bridge between the human and the divine in their respective cultures. Both show a single deity through abstract and symbolic means, and they have rather flat, two-dimensional human figures. The arrangement of figures from top to bottom underlines the order of the cosmos in each society, while eye contact of the angels  draws the viewer in Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George much more than in the earlier Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and three daughters to suggest a more direct relationship with G-d, while the leisure pose of  Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters suggests a joyful religion with less restrictions on its believers.

(2) 23.Tutankhamun’s tomb, innermost coffin

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty). 1,323 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom)

Learning Objective: Egyptian sarcophagus

Themes:

Funerary
Religious
Ideal man
Power
Status
Deities
Commemoration
Materials with significance
Museum: Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Tutankhamun’s coffin has always been a showstopping piece of art. The inner most gold coffin measures 6 feet 7 inches and weighs 243 pounds. It has been carved using incisions and is inlaid with two types of semi precious stones– lapis lazuli and turquoise.

It also contains enamel work. Melted and fused glass powder is fused with pigment to create colour, then smoothed once cooled.

The Role of the Sarcophagus

This sarcophagus was made not only to protect the body, but to enable unification with ka. The great expense it took to create this work, was a display of status and prestige.

The bright colouring indicated a better life in the after world. Special symbols were included to help the body ward off spirits. Holding the crook and flail was a pharaonic symbol of power.

Nut, the sky goddess wrapped her wings around the mummy as protection.

Who was King Tut?

King Tut was Akhenaton’s son with his sister. He was a sickly child and died by the age of 18, but not before marrying his sister. His tomb was small, which leaves historians to assume that his death was sudden and unexpected. With his brief life he was a minor figure in Egyptian history.

King Tut did manage to accomplish a few things in his short time frame. He overturned his father’s interest in the Amarna art and worship of Aten. He restored Egyptian religion to polytheism and Egyptian art to traditional styles.

His name, TutankhAMUN, is a reference to restoring power to the old god Amun.

Why was King Tut and his tomb so famous?

It was the only royal tomb untouched, until it was discovered by British Howard Carter, in 1922. There is a curse associated with the tomb, with many stories about people who were in mysterious accidents or died after encountering it.

In January 2015, the funerary mask was damaged in cleaning. The beard was knocked off and restorationist epoxied it back on in a messy fashion.

The Multiple Stage of Mummification

For Egyptians to enter the afterlife, it was believed that their bodies had to remain preserved, so they  would later be able to walk around. Sand caused a great deal or decay to bodies, so preservation required many intricate steps.

Step 1 

Priests, who were the embalmers set the body upon a large table that look very much like a lab table today. Here, in only a room in which they were allowed, the priests performed various gesture and incantations over the body.

Step 2

The body was then washed with a mineral powder made with hydrated sodium carbonate.

Step 3

This is when the extraction of the brain would incur, by using a metal hook, inserted through the nostrils.

Step 4 

Incisions were made to extract the organs including the kidney, lungs, large blood vessels and esophagus. These were stored in jars, after being washed in scented water, and wrapped in cloth.

Step 5

The body was filled internally with myrrh and natron which was wrapped in linen. Then the remains of the body were set under a mound of natron for 70 days. This would dry out the body and give the skin a look of leather.

Step 6

The body was then washed and moisturized with scented oils and fats.

Step 7

The mouth needed to speak to plead its case and enter the afterlife. It was treated with a mix of hot wax, myrrh, and terebinth.

Step 8

Since the eye had not been extracted, they remain in a dried form. New eyes were made from various constructions to be placed in front of the original eyes. Materials used included precious metals, ceramics, or enamel, with a pupil drawn in with kohl.

Step 9 

The body was then wrapped in strips of linen that was covered in a resin.

Step 10

The head was given a mask that was made from cedar, gilded stucco or pure gold.

(2) (24) Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer from The Book of the Dead.

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 19^th Dynasty). 1,275 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Learning Objectives: Egyptian book

Theme:

Funerary
Text and image
Deities
Afterlife
Religion
Status
Human and divine
 

Museum:  British Museum

This work painted on papyrus scroll is from the Book of the Dead. It was found inside Hu-Nefer’s tomb and measures 11 by 17 inches.

Reading this Work

It reads from left to right and functioned as a type of witness statement to the character of the deceased. Originally, this type of work was placed only in the tomb of dead kings, but later those of high rank were also included. In this case, it was for a scribe, that because of the profession’s talent in writing, were given a priestly status.

It depicts a scene of judgement complete with text and pictorial images. Only those with good ethnics were deemed worthy to go into the afterlife. These images include gods and deities, and symbols of the afterlife such as lotus flowers and anks.

There is a formality of stance, with traditional shapes of bodies, and a twisted perspective. The text functions around the images and acts as a caption explaining the theme.

Created for Hu-Nefer

This work was created especially for the patron Hu-Nefer, was a royal scribe to Seti.  He holds the hand of Anubis, the god of embalming with a jackal’s head, who leads him into a hall where his hands are being weighed against a feather. If his soul is heavier than a feather, he would be sent to the underworld. Here Ammit, the hippo/lion/crocodile eats the soul of the dead.

The god Thoth, with the head of an ibis bird, records who gets to move forward in the book of life.  The god Horus, with the head of a falcon, presents Hu-Nefer to Osiris, the god of the underworld, who is enthroned on the right. At the top, Hu-Nefer pleads his case to 42 judges. This is artistically simplified to 14.

Book of the Dead : Egyptian Funerary Rituals

Following is an excerpt and image from The Book of the Dead: “I have traveled through the tomb, dark and lonely ground. I am here now. I have come. I see. In the underworld, I embraced my father. I have burned away his darkness. I am his beloved. I have killed the snake. I have given him meat. I walk in my sleep through earth and heaven.”

How are the quote and the artwork related?

Using specific visual and contextual evidence while referencing both the quote and the work shown, let’s analyze how both the quote and the artwork reflect the Egyptian views of death and afterlife.

The quote suggests that the journey of the soul towards Osiris was not straightforward. Demonic crocodiles, snakes could trick or attack the soul in the underworld. Even while trying to save his own soul, the scribe continued to perform good deeds and protect his father.

The quote illustrates how The Book of Dead prepared the deceased for what awaited him/her in the Underworld, providing the soul with the spells driving away the dangers. The elaborated texts and illustrations complement each other and allow us to better understand the beliefs of the ancient Egyptian civilization.

The artwork depicts the main hurdle a deceased person must overcome, for example the weighing of the heart. In the Hall of Truth, the deceased is judged by a court chaired by Osiris, whose life-giving power/rebirth associated with the Nile River. Before the 42 god who asses his life a crouched Hu-Nefer allegedly describes his good life.

The judgment begins with the reception of the deceased by jackal-headed god Anubis. Anubis holds in his hand an ankh the symbol of the eternal life that might be awarded to Hu-Nefer. In the center stands the scale having on a tray, the heart of the deceased, and a feather on the other. If the heart is pure, the balance remains in balance and the deceased can access the paradise. The feather belongs to the goddess of order Maat who appears at the top of the scale.

Around the scales are represented the gods Anubis and Thoth. God of the scribes, the latter notes the results of the weighing. A strange monster with a crocodile head, lion paws and hippopotamus hindquarters called “the devourer” also appears near the scales ready to devour the heart of Hu-Nefer?

After the Judgement, the ankh is passed to Horus the falcon-headed god, who introduces Hu-Nefer in another room in which sits Horus’ father, Osiris. The most important god of the Egyptian pantheon Osiris is enthroned, sits on a throne surrounded by Isis and Nephthys.

In front of Osiris blooms a lotus flower the symbol of eternal life on which stay the children of Horus who are depicted on all canonic jars carrying the organs of a deceased.

The text and the artwork show that both chaos and order determined a soul journey through afterlife and that one needed to both live an ethical life and to educate himself/ herself in order to gain eternal life.

Other Objects Often Found in Tombs

What is an Egyptian Stela?

An Egyptian stela was considered religious but also had magical properties. Made from limestone or wood, they were carved, painted, or sometimes both. A stela was most commonly found in two places: inside a tomb, or inside a funerary chapel so loved ones could honor the dead.  On a stela the deceased was represented in a pictorial image, usually in front of an offering table full of food, with their names and any titles included.

During the time of the Old Kingdom, a stela was a rectangular shape that stood horizontally. Later, they were placed vertically, and it became fashionable to have a rounded top.

The example above is from Museo Egizio, in Turin, Italy. Made from sandstone, the object stands 100 by 63 by 15 centimetres. It was made for a craftman named Naki and it is thought to be from the region of Deir el-Medina, which was well regarded for their artistry.

How to Read An Egyptian Stela

A stela is set up in registers with each depicting a different scene.

The Top Register

On the top left with the jackal head is the god Anubis. Notice the ankh he is holding. This will assist in guiding the deceased to the afterlife. Just in front sits Osiris the ruler of the Netherworld. He is the symbol of rebirth, as the first said to have risen after being killed by his brother. See how the hieroglyphics tell the story above each character. Nakhi stands in front of a table with offerings.

The Center and Bottom Register

Nakhi and his wife are sitting together. The large cones on their head are perfume cones and are considered a sign of status.  On the table in front are items the deceased will require. The many children line up to give symbols of resurrection to their parents.

EGYPTIAN EXTRAS

Objects for Beauty in Ancient Egypt

Upon Further  Reflection

Mirrors were made from bronze, copper, and silver, but did not contain glass. This would not appear until Roman times.  The metal provided the reflection.  The handles were decorative and would often contain images of Hathor the goddess of love and beauty.

Mirror with Handle in the Form of a Hathor Emblemca from 1479–1425 B.C. at the Metropolitan Museum of art in New York, is a fine example of a mirror in ancient Egypt, New Kingdom. Originally made of wood, It was covered in gold foil. The use of precious metals indicates it was for the elite. It has been traced back to Thutmose II belonging to one of his three wives.

The woman face on the top of the handle has the large ears of a cow. This represents the goddess Bat, but is also a symbol for Hathor.

The woman’s face with cow’s ears represents the goddess Bat and is also an emblem of the goddess Hathor. The use of gold and silver, rather than wood and bronze, identifies this as the possession of a member of the elite, in this case one of three foreign wives of Thutmose III. The king’s cartouche is inscribed above the face.

Time To Make Up

Small stone vessels were the perfect storage space for face washing creams and moisturizers. These beauty essential skin softeners were made from a combination of vegetable oils and animal fat along with fragrances.

The Smith papyrus has a recipe for a face cream using the main ingredient fenugreek.

Did you know that both men and women used foundations in the form of powder? It was used on both the face and body to whiten them. The predominate ingredient was ceruse. Foundations or base makeups were stored in round stone jars.

Kohl or black eyeliner was stored in long tubes (After it was ground and mixed on a palette!) Often made of reed and wood, glass containers were reserved for the elite. There are only 500 glass kohl containers known in existence. 

Eyeliner helped to define the eye. Due to its antibacterial functions, it also prevented infections, which were common due to sand, the drying elements of the air and the beating sun.

Long deep spoons were used to store various coloured blush powders. Examples of spoon materials found include wood or ivory. The handles were often carved into elongated images. Naked swimmers, ducks or water lilies were popular choices.

Here is an example of such a spoon. Cosmetic Spoon in the Shape of Swimming Woman Holding a Dish 1390–1352 BCE (New Kingdom)  The object is made from Travertine (Egyptian alabaster) and steatite. The top once held a container for blush. A  swimming woman on the handle holds on to an antelope. The entire work is almost 9 inches long.

Hair Care

Hair was an important part of beauty in ancient Egypt. Abundance was key and it was often enhanced with hair extensions and wigs. These pieces were made from wool or human hair.

Henna was used to dye hair. This was obtained from the leaves of a thorny shrub from the lythraceae family.

For adornment, hair accessories such as combs, or flowers like the popular lotus were added.

The Importance of Beauty in the Afterlife

Objects of beauty that aided in beautification were buried in tombs the accompany souls in the afterlife.

Here is an example. The Wide-Necked Cosmetic Jar was created between 1550-1450 BCE (New Kingdom) When this piece was excavated it also contained a hairpin and a wooden kohl stick to apply eyeliner.

VOCABULARY

• hieroglyphics
• mastaba
• ben-ben
• mortuary temple
• hypostyle hall
• canon
• sphinx
• diorite
• colonnade
• cleretory
• pylon
• atlantis
• causeway
• engaged columns
• entablature
• Ka