Early European & Colonial Art 3.3

Early European and Colonial Art

200- 1750

Topic 3.3

Materials, Processes, and Techniques in Early European and Colonial American Art

Art and art making take many different forms both within and across cultures, and the materials, processes, and techniques employed may also vary by location and culture with wide-ranging influence on the art that is generated.

Developments in the form and use of visual elements, such as linear and atmospheric perspective, composition, color, figuration, and narrative, enhanced the illusion of naturalism.

(3) 51. San Vitale

 San Vitale. Byzantine. 526-547 CE. Ravenna, Italy. Byzantine.

Learning Objective: Byzantine central plan church

Themes:

Religion
Portrait
Rulers
Propaganda
Ideal man
Ideal woman
Politics
Architecture
Power
Cross-cultural
Male-female relationships

San Vitale is a church in Ravenna, Italy, made from marble and stone veneer. It is also known for its magnificent mosaics. The central plan is symbolic of unity, continuity,  and timelessness. The brick of the austere exterior was taken from ancient Roman (spolia) and repurposed here.

This is the surviving church from Justinian’s era that is virtually unchanged.

The Narthex

The Narthex, or entrance to the church was as far as non-baptized people could go. It has an odd angle, which has never been explained. Historians think it may have been an attempt to symbolically disorient the viewer and make them seek out the altar by re-orienting themselves. Another theory is that it may have been constructed in this manner to highlight the transition from the material world to the spiritual one.

 Walking Inside

The interior is bright, illuminated, and opulent continuing in the tradition of a beautiful interior to symbolize a beautiful soul. The use of triple arcades references the trinity.

The church is centrally planned so that the focus is on the center, instead of a basilica plan with the focus on the apse.  San Vitale consists of two concentric octagons. The smaller octagon is inside, with a drum that raises the dome higher to allow in light. The drum is mixed with windows in a kind of clerestory.

How do you take a circle shaped dome and place it on top of an octagon? It is done with squinches. This is simply a wedge that fits into corners of a space.

Capitals of columns are called impost blocks, or inverted pyramids. The Classical orders are left behind. This is a result of Christians turning away from pagan Greco-Roman precedents.

The bottom floor has an ambulatory or an aisle for walking around the church in a circular fashion. The second floor has a gallery and an ambulatory that was reserved for women.

The apse is extended slightly to one side. The alter was placed here so everyone could see the priest.

Cross-cultural Influences

San Vitale is a Byzantine church for the Greek Orthodox religion. While it shows Early Christian influences with new Christian iconography and culture, it also has a Roman influence, with a dome similar to the Pantheon.

Imagery

• Formal
• Flat
• Frontal
• Floating

Propaganda for Justinian

San Vitale was political propaganda for Justinian, to display his power in Ravenna, Italy. This newly conquered region was a place he has never visited. It displayed the opulence and wealth of Byzantines, and their leader. The church also imposed the Byzantine tradition of Greek Orthodoxy, in this area of Italy.

What is a Martyrium?

Martyrium is a shrine built over a place where a saint is martyred or buried. This is a martyrium to Saint Vitalis

Magnificent Mosaics 

Apse of San Vitale with Christ Between Angels and Saints

The figures in this mosaic are otherworldly. They exist in a heavenly realm. Landscapes are not naturalistic nor is 3D rendering.

The figures from left to right include:

• Saint Vitalis
• Angel
• Christ
• Angel
• Bishop Ecclesius

Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifying universal dominion. He offers the crown of martyrdom to Saint Vitalis. Four Rivers of Paradise sit underneath him with rainbow clouds above. Extending a gold wreath of victory to Saint Vitalis, patron saint of church, in one hand,  with the other, he holds the book of Apocalypse.

Vitalis reaches for the crown with his hands covered in cloth, as is Byzantine court ceremony. He is a soldier, and this is signified by the boots he wears.  Bishop Ecclesius holds the model of the church.

Above the Altar

The lamb of God wears a halo as Christ is depicted as sacrificial lamb, surrounded by wreath of victory. This is the success of Christianity itself.

SUB-IMAGE 1: Justinian Panel

This mosaic work is located on the on north wall next to altar in the apse. It is formal, relating to religion and politics. Yet, classical naturalism has been left out of this work.

The images have a serious nature. The space is gold to show they are of a higher realm. This makes it look flat and the view is frontal. The images appear to be floating. Their feet are oddly angled, as if non-weigh bearing.

Function of this Mosaic

 The main theme of this mosaic is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history.  The prominent location, next to the altar, shows the importance of Justinian.  He has religious,  administrative, and  military authority.

What this Mosaic Shows the Viewer

 Justinian is shown participating in the Eucharist /communion ceremony. He is  holding the bread which has transubstantiated into the body of Christ. It is on a plate called paten that is used only for bread during Eucharist.

• Justinian stands at center, represented as a priest-king.
• Halo shows the divine origin of his authority.
• He wears crown and purple robe, the symbol of divinity.
• Justinian divides the picture plane into two sides, as he embodies both Church and State.

The left side represents the state. Soldiers on far left are generic and lack individuality. They have shields with Chi-Rho, the first two letters of Christ’s name in Latin. Dressed in white with purple stripes are the men of the Imperial administration. The beardless figure is the court eunuch.  Figure on right is Belisarius.

The right side of the mosaic represents the Church. Featured here is Julius Argentius, the principal benefactor of the Church and Bishop Maximianus, probably because he played a role in the construction and supervision of church design.

Ambiguity exists in the positioning of Justinian and Maximianus. This overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, and he is central figure. Maximianus’s feet are lower on the picture plane and therefore actually closer to us. Additionally, he is named.

Which figure is more important, Justinian or Maximianus? This has been interpreted as a source of tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church. Justinian has never been to the church and Maximianus oversaw the work on the Mosaic. Was this his way of asserting his own power?

The clergy carry objects for Eucharist, including a censer to burn incense and a gospel book.

SUB-IMAGE 2: Theodora Panel

This mosaic is positioned on the south wall to the apse and facing Justinian.  Theodora ruled as co-equal to Justinian. She was a powerful woman. This illustrates how both king and queen played an important role.

Theodora appears elaborately robed in purple, with jewelry and a bejewelled crown. This symbolizes the richness of the Byzantines. The halo does not represent her own divinity but that her authority is of divine origin. Here she carries a gold cup, having just participated in the same Eucharist ceremony.

Historical Context

476 CE: A church was already being built here when the area was under Goth rule

536 CE: Ravenna now ruled by the Ostrogoths, and church construction began under Bishop Ecclesius

539 CE : Ravenna in Italy was conquered by Justinian’s general Belisarius.

• Ravenna enjoyed its greatest cultural and economic prosperity during Justinian’s rule
• Ravenna, thanks to its control by the Barbarians, believed Christ was the creation of God the Father and was therefore not an equal in the trinity.
• Justinian sent his general Belisarius there to capture this area and impose Greek Orthodoxy
• Justinian and Theodora never visited Ravenna

547 CE: Bishop Maximianus completed the interior decoration and oversaw the mosaics

• Byzantines promoted belief caesaropapism (Caesar over pope) – believing a single political ruler is the head of the church

 

(3) 53. Merovingian looped fibulae

Early medieval Europe. Mid-6^th century.

Learning Objective: Early Medieval jewelry

Themes:

Animals
Utilitarian
Status
Decorative arts
Cross-cultural
Biblical
Funerary

Museum: Musee des Antiquities Nationales in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France

Merovingian looped fibulae are a beautiful example of decorative arts in early medieval Europe. This piece is comprised of silver gilt worked in filigree with inlays of garnets and other stones. These are a pair of broaches (fibula would be the singular) that are each 4 inches long.

What is Decorative Art?

Decorative arts fall under the category of Fine Arts— includes sculpture, painting, and architecture. Decorative arts are beautiful utilitarian objects. Think clocks, jewelry, vases, tea pots, and furniture.

Methods Used to Create this Jewelry 

• Chase metal or shape it by hammering. Other examples of chasing include indenting to ornament metal.
• Filigree metal into delicate shapes.
• Gild the work with silver or cover the metal with silver. This is an example of silver gilt, but pieces can also be done in gold.
• Cloisonné work using small wires to make little cups. Cloisonné was a popular technique in early Medieval art. The term means “partitioned” in French. Artists would attach wires onto a metal base to create various shapes. Then stones were placed in these shapes
• Finish cloisonné by inlaying the garnets and other stones.
• Attach pin on the back.

Made Popular by Roman Soldiers

These pieces of decorative art jewelry have a utilitarian purpose. Before buttons existed, they were used  to fasten garments, such as cloaks and capes.  Wearing A fibula (fib-you-luh) or fibulae(fib-you-lay) was a status symbol. Later pieces were used as a sign of the Christian faith.

Examining the Jewelry Up Close

This style of fibulae was called a crossbow because it resembled the weapon.

The side of an eagle’s head appears on these pieces. Eagles were originally a Greek/Roman symbol of Zeus/Jupiter. Later these birds were used to reference Saint John. Garnets, red semi precious stones makeup the eyes of the eagles.

The fish are in reference to Christ’s miracle of loaves and fishes, when he created enough to feed hundreds.

These fibulae had another use. At the bottom of each is a small loop, so the jewelry could also be worn as pendants.

Who were the Merovingians?

The Merovingians were a barbarian group who ruled a large part of France and northern Spain.

Part of the Art of the Migration period that was produced by Barbarians from 300-900 CE, this art became increasingly more Christian as barbarians adopted the religion.

Fibulae were originally pins used by Roman military members. Barbarians later followed this example. These pieces of jewelry were commonly found in barbarian grave sites.  The Merovingian looped fibulae were found in the grave of a wealthy Merovingian woman in Spain.

Little documentation exists about Barbarians, so these works provide some of the only concrete evidence. It reveals proficiency and skill of barbarian metal workers.

(3) 55. Lindisfarne Gospels

Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. 700 CE.

Learning Objective: Early Medieval illuminated manuscript

Themes:

Text and image
Biblical
Religion
Animals in art

Museum: British Library

Lindisfarne Gospels, is a codex or bound book, illuminated manuscript, measuring 13 inches tall. The book is made from vellum, meaning calf skins. This was used for 130 pages in total. Ink , as well as various pigments and gold were used.

The book is written in Latin.  A monk used a goose quill, dipped in black ink to write with. The work was completed in a scriptorium or the rooms in monasteries where monks worked on books.  Gold leaf, applied in flakes, is reflective.

This book created in Lindisfarne, a small island off the coast of Scotland, is considered a masterpiece of Insular culture which refers to the islands of Britain and Ireland. It blends components from Celtic Germanic and Mediterranean cultures, through text, calligraphy, and art.

Horror vacui translated into Greek is “fear of empty space”. In art terms, this means the artist filled up every space with detail.

Styling the Manuscript

Various styles were used throughout the manuscript. On the pages on St. Matthew the viewer finds:

• Animal style: art form in which animals are depicted in a stylized and complicated form and pattern.
• Zoomorphic: based on animal shapes and specifically in this case snakes.
• Interlacing: complex and repetitive knots, spirals, and tightly twisted lines

Why this Manuscript was Made

Monks made Bibles as an exercise in patience and devotion, as well as to honor God. Once completed, it was used to aid in devotion and prayer. Interlacing and vibrant colors are meant to incite meditation and contemplation.

Lindisfarne Gospels was made to honor the relics of St. Cuthbert, the saint whose bones were on site.

Examining the Gospels

The Gospels are the first four books of the New Testament written by Evangelists: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. Each one of the Gospels has three parts:

• Portrait page
• Cross-carpet page
• Gospel text (starting with incipit page)

SUB-IMAGE 1: St. Matthew Cross-carpet page

 PICTURED ABOVE

 On this page you will find:

• Carpet page: when flat geometric decorative design covers the whole page
• Cross-carpet page: design is in shape of a cross
• Stylized cross against background of intricate knots
• Many of the knots are snakes that are clamping down on themselves or others

SUB-IMAGE 2 : St. Luke portrait page

 Here, curly-haired St. Luke sits on a red-cushioned stool, against an unornamented background. His divinity is represented by a gold halo. Holding a quill in his right hand, about to write on a scroll, he is relaxed with his legs and feet stretched out.  A blue-winged ox clasps the Bible. This creature is a symbol of Luke.

In the St. Luke Portrait,  the figure is greatly simplified. At this point, the knowledge of Greco-Roman naturalism and idealism is lost. There is no understanding of perspective, foreshortening or recession. There is an undefined space and unclear weight of figures.

SUB-IMAGE 3: St. Luke incipit page

The word “incipit” translates into “it begins”. Snakes move within the letter.

A Large Q begins the text that reads “Quoniam quidem multi conati sunt ordinare narrtionem.” This means,  “As many have taken it in hand to set forth in order…”

The border on the righthand side terminates in a cat shape. Birds and snakes are present.

Art and Hiberno Saxon Culture

Lindisfarne Gospels is an Early Medieval (Hiberno Saxon) hand made manuscript. Hibernia is Ireland. Saxon means Germanic tribes in Great Britain. Hiberno-Saxon means Irish and Germanic culture in Great Britain.

Hiberno Saxon art flourished in monasteries. These communities were deeply Christian. Monasticism was extremely popular and an increasingly growing Christian practice. It involved the removal of oneself from daily life and distractions and pleasures. It was thought that it was better to live a difficult life so you could understand how good life was.

Historically, we know a lot about this oldest surviving Bible in English, because of the colophon or statement at the end of the book describes the author. It was made by a monk Eadfrith. He eventually became the Bishop.

Usually, a team of monks would work on a book, but Eadfrith completed this himself. He died before completing it, which is why some of the book remains unfinished.

(3) 57. Pyxis of al-Mughira.

Umayyad. 968 CE. Islamic.

Learning Objective: Islamic ivory decorative arts

Themes

Iconography
Decorative arts
Utilitarian
Text and image
Power
Rulers
Status
Materials with significance
Animals in art

Museum: Louvre

Pyxis of al-Mughira is an example of decorative arts that is both beautiful and utilitarian. Made of  solid ivory from the tusks of an elephant, the work stands 6 inches tall.  Ivory was expensive, durable, smooth, elegant, and easily carved, making it a highly desirable material. This pyxis was made from the famous workshop of Madinat al-Zahra

Islamic art is not always aniconic, meaning it does not use animal or human form. It is religiously aniconic only. In non-religious or secular and for private use, representational images can be used.

Horror vacui: literally means “fear of emptiness” and refers to artwork that is completely full of imagery. This decorative work is an example of this. The work is dense, overcrowded, and intricate, with no space for recession.

Politically Utilitarian

The Pyxis of al-Mughira was a gift to 18-year-old al-Mughira, son of a caliph, as a coming-of-age present. A pyxis is cylindrical box with a separate lid. This one has a utilitarian purpose, as it was used for cosmetics. Royal men wore makeup, particularly eye makeup, as a sign of status.

Ivory objects were given to royalty on important occasions. Think marriage, birth, and coming of age.

Such works express the political authority of the Spanish Umayyads.

The Visuals

This work is decorated with four eight-lobed medallions. This is symbolism of the number eight. It represents the eight levels of Paradise. There are carved falconers, griffons, peacocks, birds, and animals to be hunted.

Royal iconography includes courtly figures and lute players. Falcons were a symbol of Umayyad legitimacy and power. Date palm trees may allude to the lost Umayyad lands of the Middle East.

The two lions symbolizing the Umayyads.

The inscription reads: “God’s blessing, favors, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira, son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him.”

Historical Backgrounder

Umayyads, were once attacked by the Abbasids in the Middle East. They fled to Spain and ruled there.

The ivory trade flourished in Al-Andalus between 711-1492.

(3) 59. Bayeux Tapestry

Romanesque Europe (English or Norman). 1066-1080 CE.

Learning Objective: Romanesque embroidery

Themes:

War
Rulers
Propaganda
Text and image
Violence
Power
Victory
Textiles

Museum: Bayeux Museum. Normandy, France.

Entitling this work Bayeux Tapestry is a misnomer, as it is not a tapestry at all! This is an extraordinarily large embroidery using wool, on linen,  and measuring 20 feet high by 230 feet wide.

Executed by women, it has been often attributed to William the Conqueror wife, Mathilde of France.

Anglo-Saxon needlework is of extremely high quality. Here, historians are not sure if the work is English or Norman (France).

The tapestry is organized to lead the viewer’s eye scene to scene and divided three compositional zones or registers. It has a neutral background devoid of shadows or negative space. The colour is not naturalistic.

The bodies lack modeling and are highly stylized and elongated. There is a lack of perspective and definition of space.

The Function of the Embroidered Work

Bayeux Tapestry, was Commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother of William the Conqueror. He was crowned a Duke by his brother.

It was a testimony to Norman (French) glory over the Anglo-Saxons (English) and shows

William’s conquest of Harold Godwinson.  The tapestry was displayed at Bayeux Cathedral, and likely hung in one of the dining halls, given the size and subject matter.

The Storyline

This work tells the story in Latin of the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and William the Conqueror’s conquest of the Anglo-Saxons in England led by Harold Godwinson.

Within the embroidery there are:

• 58 scenes in total, told from the French/Norman perspective
• Over 600 people, but only three women!
• Conquest is shown as fully justified
• Harold is portrayed negatively as an opportunist who broke his oath to Edward the Confessor, the former king of England
• Upper register/lower register contains animals, beasts, people, hunting scenes
• Figures are generally calm, stoic, successful

SUB-IMAGE 1 The Cavalry Attack

PICTURED ABOVE

This section shows the strength of the Norman formation. The soldiers are covered with accurate armour and protected by helmets and shields.

Horsemen used stirrups which enabled them to strike without being thrown by the impact. Cavalry wore conical steel helmets, with protective nose plates, chainmail shirts, and carried spears and axes. Mortally wounded men and horses are strewn along the embroidered fabric.

SUB-IMAGE 2 First Meal

 After reaching the shores of England, a celebrational feast is underway.

• On the left: servants prepare food over a fire and bake bread in an outdoor oven
• Middle: dining scene where servants serve the food as Bishop Odo blesses the meal
• On the right: William dines with his men

About William

William the Conqueror was originally named William the Bastard. He was the illegitimate son of Robert the Magnificent and Herleva of Falaise. His name change came with military successes.

The Calvary

William the Conqueror won the war because of the horsemen. Cavalries could advance quickly and then retreat to avoid danger. This would often scatter an opponent’s defenses.

In the case of the Saxon’s, their lines began to fragment.  Norman cavalry penetrated easily and killed Harold Godwinson.  He was first struck in the eye with an arrow, then run through with swords.

(3) 67. Pazzi Chapel.

Filippo Brunelleschi. Italian. 1429-1461. Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence, Italy. 15th century. Italian Renaissance.

The Pazzi Chapel , in Florence, Italy, a work of masonry, was designed by architect Filippo Brunelleschi, and constructed after his death.  This chapel is off the cloister that is attached to the Basilica of Santa Croce.

Learning Objective: 15^th century. Southern church

Themes:

Place of worship
Religion
Architecture
Status
Funerary
Appropriation
Revival of tradition

This architecture of Pazzi Chapel symbolizes a huge departure and contrast from the Gothic style. It utilizes a classical revivalist style based on what the Greeks believed to be the perfect shape–a circle.

Based on the Pantheon, the architecture utilizes a dome as the central architectural principle and exterior that hides the dome.

The Exterior

The outside of the structure uses a classical vocabulary with rounded arches, fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, and a semicircular dome. The front is based on Roman triumphed arches.

The portico, with a small dome overhead, has six Corinthian columns.  The portico dome is decorated with the coat of arms of the Pazzi Family, which features two dolphins.

The Interior

The layout is rectangular with a central square room. Here, there is a  dome with 12 ribs, that rests on pendentives. An oculus in the center of the dome, as well as windows along the perimeter, let the light through.

Stone benches run along the length of the walls.  Architectural elements are clearly defined with the use of pietra serena, a gray stone. Terracotta roundels, or decorative plates made by artist Luca della Robbia depict the Four Evangelists.

Function

This chapel was provided by the Pazzi family as a way to atone for their sins and do good work, in the eyes of the Church.  It was originally used as a chapter house, or meeting room for monks for private discussions and prayer. The Pazzi family also used it as a funerary chapel.

A Chapel of Perfect Mathematical Harmony

 Although the interior appears plain, the beauty of the chapel is in the mathematical harmony. This was believed to be to be proof of the perfection of God and the Heavens.

The Notorious Pazzi Family

This chapel was commissioned by Andrea Pazzi, head of a wealthy banking family, in 1429, as a house for monks. The violence between the Pazzis and Medicis was so disruptive that it halted the project. The Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478 resulted in the family being exiled from Florence.

About the Architect

Florentine Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) spent time in Rome learning about ancient buildings. The Pantheon epitomized Brunelleschi’s style. Geometric form, both inside and out was the most distinctive feature of his architecture. A prime example of his work is the Florence Cathedral.

A Renaissance man, Brunelleschi combined architecture, with work in sculpture, mathematics, engineering, and ship design.

Brunelleschi worked on Pazzi Chapel starting in 1429, until his death in 1446.  His workers continued it afterwards,  but the project was never fully finished.

(3) 76. School of Athens.

Raphael. Italian. Buon fresco. 1509-1511. 16^th century. Southern (High Renaissance).

Learning Objective: 16^th century. Southern buon fresco

Themes:

Philosophy
Status
Power

School of Athens, a buon fresco in Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican Palace, Vatican City, Italy, that measures 16 by 25 feet is a work by artist Raphael.

An open, clear light uniformly is spread throughout the balanced composition. The figures are grounded, have shadows, and are evenly distributed. The use of chiaroscuro shows three-dimensionality.

The architecture is an idealized recreation of a classical gymnasium, inspired by Roman bathhouses. There are coffered barrel vaults and Greek meander patterns along edges. Roman sculptures include  Apollo on left, Athena on right, along with pilasters.

School of Athens combines one-point perspective and two-point perspective.

• One-point perspective: vanishing point is right behind Plato and Aristotle
• Two-point perspective visible in Michelangelo’s block with an angle that means new perspective must be used.

Creating a Buon Fresco Outline

• Make a cartoon for image that is small scale and perfect it
• Make large cartoon, perforated by small holes where lines are drawn
• Position cartoon on wall
• Use Powder charcoal to image to accentuate the holes, leaving an outline on the wall

Deep Thinking in the Library

School of Athens  was commissioned by Pope Julius II to decorate his philosophy wall. In the library, in the Papal Apartments.

Each wall had bookshelves below it that related to the four branches of human knowledge.

• Philosophy
• Theology
• Poetry
• Law/literature
• Humanist thought is joined with Church teachings.

This work embodies the spirit of the Renaissance when there was religious admiration for these great thinkers.  The viewer must understand each figure through color, movement, position, and dress as there are no names on the work to show identity. This has confused some historians!

What is School of Athens About?

The left side of the work contains philosophers who addressed  liberal arts, the intangible, the ideal and theoretical. Plato has been painted to look like artist Leonardo!

Plato holds one of his books and points upward to show that the higher reality is eternal and unchanging. He argued that appearances are not the final truth. He wears red (fire) and purple (air) and neither of these have weight. Socrates, Plato’s teacher, is in dark green.

Pythagoras sits on the bottom left, in pink, and is holding a book.  Heraclitus leans on a block, appearing deep in thoughts about his interests in cosmology. The figure is based on Michelangelo. Raphael added him in later by using some fresh plaster,

On the right side are the great thinkers of math and science, the tangible, practical and empirical. This is symbolized by Aristotle, Plato’s student.  Aristotle holds his book Ethics, which focuses on the observable. He is grounded and his clothing reflects this with the brown of the earth and the blue of the water.

Diogenes, the founder of Cynic philosophy lays on the stairs.  Ptolemy who tried to mathematically explain the movement of planets holds the globe.

The Greater Story

At this point in history, the artist is seen as more than just a craftsman. Popes are now directly commissioning art. The Church had traditionally turned away from classical antiquity. Now, under Pope Julius II, it is embraced. Religions and secularism are joined.

About Raphael

Italian Renaissance painter Raphael (1483- 1520) was born in Urbino, Italy. His father was a painter for Duke of Urbino, so he was taught skills early. He died when Raphael was just 11 and the boy was forced to take over his father’s workshop. Soon, Raphael was known as the best painter in his town.

In 1500, Raphael was invited to apprentice in Perugia, Central Italy, with master painter Pietro Vannunci. After four years, Raphael left to move to Florence, where he was inspired by the great artists of the time. Raphael would be best known for his work in painting Madonnas and frescos.

(3) 80. Venus of Urbino

Titian. Italian (Venetian). 1538 CE. 16^th century. Southern (Venetian).

Learning Objective: 16^th century. Venetian painting

Themes:

Ideal woman
Sexuality
Female nude
Male-female relationships
Domestic
Private
Status
Animals in art
Portrait
Iconography
Commemoration

Museum: Uffizi in Florence

This is an oil on canvas painting by Titian entitled Venus of Urbino, measuring 4 feet by 5 feet 5 inches. Canvas was first widely used in Venice,  because it was cheaper than wood. And unlike wood, canvas could stand up to humidity better.

Oil painting was imported from Northern Europe. It quickly replaced tempera, a quick-drying paint bound by egg yolk that produced a flat, chalky, opaque surface.

This new medium was perfect for painting soft nudes and flesh tones. Also, when oil dries, it is somewhat translucent which allows reflection of light and results in a shiny surface. Titian even added ground up glass to his pigments to better reflect light.

The use of chiaroscuro or the effect of contrasting light and shadow, created from light that falls unevenly, is applied here.  Subtle changes of skin tone are apparent from her neck down across her chest and in between her breasts. Then it runs down across her torso and abdomen, along her thigh and towards her knee.

To achieve deep tones, Venetian painters would slowly apply glazes to build up layer upon layer of oil paint on canvas. Since oil dries slowly, the colors could be blended wet-in-wet (alla prima). On her body there are up to 15 layers of paint.

Proportion Play

Titian manipulated the portions of the woman’s body to make it especially elegant, soft, and rounded. The viewers eyes are drawn to her face, torso, and hips. Looking closer, her feet are too small for her body.

Complex Spatial Environment

The figure is placed forward, on a soft diagonal, from the upper left to lower right of her body. The middle section shows servants from a back view, along with a chest.

The canvas itself is divided into two, with the dark green curtains. This gives contrast to the woman’s face and torso, so the viewer cannot clearly see the details.

A Gift from the Duke

Titian painted this at the request of Duke Guidobaldo della Rovere of Urbino to his young wife Giulia Varano. It is not clear to the viewer who the subject is. It could be Venus, a courtesan, or the wife. Since this was a private commission, Titian may have painted Giulia. It may have hung over the marital bed.

What Does Venus of Urbino Represent?

This painting in an allegory of marriage in three parts. It represents:

Eroticism: the woman is naked and represents Venus the goddess of love.

Fidelity: the dog represents fidelity

Motherhood: is represented by the two servants in the background, as the younger one is supervised.

Venus in Name Only

Naked paintings often had the word “Venus” in the title to make painting a naked woman more acceptable. That does not mean it in not a picture of a real woman.

The Story Unfolds

We know that the woman is sexually available, but faithful to her husband. Living in luxury is possible because of her husband’s status.  She is confident and possesses a coyness, as she looks right at the viewer.

Symbolism

• Bedsheets: red, sign of love and romance
• Roses: are a sign of Venus and marriage and love
• Pearls: are a sign of Venus (from the shell she comes from)
• Dogs: can symbolize fidelity and faithfulness, but also carnality/sexuality
• Cassone: trunk intended for storage of clothing for wife’s dowry
• Luxurious home and servants: wealthy family
• Myrtle bush: common plant for weddings

Titian and the Reclining Female Nude

Titian is credited with establishing the genre of the reclining female nude. He learned from his teacher Giorgione.

Most female nudes are recumbent, posed so that the viewer can see them, and asleep. This made for a  pleasant and undisturbed viewing experience for men, as the women in these paintings did not know the men were gazing upon them. This provides a sense of anonymity for the men and an enticing sense of voyeurism.

However, Titian changed the final detail. Venus of Urbino is awake. She is aware of the gaze, but she welcomes it.

More About Titian

Titian (1488-1576) was considered one of the greatest artists of the Italian Renaissance.  Born Tiziano Vecellio, in what is now Pieve di Cadore, Italy, he was an apprentice to Venetian artist Sebastian Zuccato.

His first major commission was Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, in Venice, in 1516. His work Assumption of the Virgin, painted for the church’s high alter, stablished his career.

Next, he created a work, inspired by mythology, The Worship of Venus, between 1518-1519, one of several commissioned by Alfonso I d’Este, duke of Ferrara.  Wealthy patrons continued to hire him, including King Philip II of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

(3) 85. Calling of St. Matthew

Caravaggio. Italian. 1597-1601. Southern (Italian) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century. Southern Baroque (Italian) painting

Themes:

Light
Religion
Propaganda
Biblical
Status
Human and divine

The Calling of St. Matthew by Italian painter Caravaggio, is an oil on canvas work measuring 10 feet 5 inches by 10 feet five inches. It hangs in the Contarelli Chapel, at San Luigi dei Francescei, in Rome, Italy.

In this painting the light comes in from the right for illumination. There is also a window overhead in Contarelli Chapel which streams in natural light.

Techniques and Style

Here Caravaggio uses tenebrism or “dark manner” There is extreme chiaroscuro or an effect of light and dark shadows. The images shift from dark to light very quickly without any shades in the middle.

The painting has the Baroque characteristics of drama. The figures sit or stand on a narrow stage and the action happens close to the viewer. Caravaggio maintain the high naturalism of the High Renaissance but adds drama and intensity.

He also employs radical naturalism, using everyday characters. These are earth bound common figures. Even Christ looks like a regular guy. He is barely elevated above his followers and there is only the fainted hint of a halo. Christ in this painting is far from the idealized beauty of the High Renaissance.

A Dedication to Saint Mathew

Calling of St. Matthew is one of three paintings, by Caravaggio, hanging in the Contarelli Chapel, that are dedicated to the saint. Mathew was one of Christ’s disciples.

The Calling of St. Matthew, hangs on the left, Inspiration of St. Matthew, is in the center , and Martyrdom of St. Matthew hangs on the right.

The Chapel belonging to the French Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel chose him namesake Matthew as the subject of the chapel’s decorative program.

Calling of St. Matthew shows the moment of transition or spiritual awakening in Matthew. The work was intended to show the faith and piety of the believers and to inspire the non-believers.

The Story Within the Painting

The story is from the New Testament.  Matthew is a tax collector who sits with other tax collectors, in a Roman pub. The foppishly dressed men lean forward to greedily count their money.

The light in the painting symbolizes Christ and it enters with him  He delicately and gracefully extends his arm outwards to Matthew. Calling of St. Matthew is Reminiscent of the hand of Adam in Sistine Chapel. This was intentional as Caravaggio was a big fan of Michelangelo.

Christ points to Matthew and asks him to follow. Matthew is in disbelief and points to himself to clarify what Christ has just asked. This is one moment in time at the climax of the story.

Three hands (Trinity) point towards Matthew. The light cast on Matthew is the light of conversion.

St. Peter is the heavy, powerful, burly man turned into the picture plane, who blocks Christ from being fully seen by the viewer.

The History of Art and Church

During Counter-Reformation, the church wanted to use art to emphasize that a personal connection to God was possible. This helped to make Catholicism real and accessible.

To pull the viewer into the art it used moments of transformation. Think Bernini’s approach for Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

A Unique Approach

While Bernini used a saint in his work Caravaggio, chose art for the masses, by bringing the masses into his art. For the first time, a sacred Biblical episode was depicted as a normal realistic event in the same timeframe it was painted in.

About Caravaggio

Artist Caravaggio (1571-1610) was born in Milan, Italy. He was considered the father of modern painting at the time. When the bubonic plague killed his family, while he was a child, he apprenticed with Simone Peterzano, in Milan. He was just 11 years old. Afterwards, he moved to Rome where his technique in tenebrism proved popular.

The commission for Contarelli Chapel gave his work exposure and more work would follow.

Caravaggio led a troubled life with drinking, gambling and fighting throughout.

(3) 87. Self-Portrait with Saskia.

Rembrandt van Rijn. Dutch. 1636. Northern (Dutch) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century Northern Baroque (Dutch) etching

Themes:

Print
Male-female relationships
Portrait
Commemoration

Museum: Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, California

Self-Portrait with Saskia is an etching by Rembrandt van Rijn, that measures 4 feet x 3 feet 7 inches. Rembrandt illustrates himself using a lot of  dark, deep lines, as he is in the foreground of the work.  Saskia is composed of faint lines and less of them to indicate she is further away on the picture plane.

How was this Engraving Made?

The engraving is made with a burin. An image is carved or incised, into the surface of a metal plate using a burin. This object is a tool, with a flat round top that fits into the palm of the hand. It has a has a short, sharp tip. The width and depth of the engraved line depends upon the angle it is used.

Once the surface is cut it is covered with ink. This pools into the incised area. The ink is then wiped away from the surface. The surface is applied to paper with pressure.

Function

Saskia and his love for her, inspired Rembrandt to create this work. Prints were a way to make art accessible to more people, many of whom would later buy paintings.

The Couple Captured

This work is a double portrait or marriage portrait of Rembrandt and his wife Saskia van Uylenburgh. This is the only etching in which the two of them appear together. They look up at the viewer, as if they were just interrupted from enjoying a moment together. Both are sitting and a table and Rembrandt has a pencil in hid hand. He has been sketching.

Saskia is shown as supportive and attentive to her husband. Rembrandt dominates the image and gazes directly at the viewer. Both are wearing historical clothing from the 16^th century.

The Theme of Self Portraits

Self-Portraits were a  common theme for Rembrandt. He created more than 100 in the span of 40 years. He often posed his subjects in costume as a form of play acting.

Rembrandt met Saskia while working for her cousin, Hendrick, who was an Amsterdam art dealer. They were married and together for 13 years, until Saskia died. This etching was created after the couple’s second year of marriage.

Art and the Dutch Golden Age

Trade in the Dutch Golden Age brought with it incredible wealth. It was seen as an investment. It also subtly showed the wealth of the owner.

Prints were entry level artworks that allowed new investors to buy, before eventually buying paintings.

More About Rembrandt

Born in the Netherlands (1606-1669) Rembrandt was a Dutch Baroque painter and print maker. He painted light and shades, while capturing moods and realism. Much of his work is biblical, as well as historical, but he also painted portraits and self-portraits.

Some of his most famous works include The Night Watch, The Storm of the Sea of Galilee, Bathsheba at the Bath, and The Return of the Prodigal Son.

 

(3) 94. Screen with the Siege of Belgrade. New Spain. 1697-1701.

Learning Objective: New Spanish decorative arts

Themes:

cross-cultural
violence
interpretation of history
status
decorative arts
war
politics
utilitarian

Museums: Brooklyn Museum and Museo Nacional del Virreinato – INAH, Tepotzotlán ( The screen has been divided in half and is in two separate locations)

This decorative artwork is a folding screen or biombo enconchado that measures 7 feet 6 inches by 9 feet.

A biombo means folding screen in Spanish. Enconchado means shell inlay.

The primary material is wood with tempera and resin. The screen is painted on both sides with beautiful brushstrokes and intricate figures. The work embodies Spanish, Colonial, Flemish and Dutch styles. It was crafted by the Circle of Gonzales Family of artists.

The artist in the New World region, which today is Mexico, was inspired by Japanese folding screens. This is a Baroque work, because of the timeframe it was created, as well as its extravagance and opulence.

The Two Sides of the Screen

One side of the screen depicts the Siege of Belgrade. The  Battle of Belgrade in 1688 was part of Great Turkish War 1683-1699. The Hapsburgs were the  Christian ruling family of Spain, and they battled Turkey and therefore Islam. So, this was a very contemporary scene.

On the back is a hunting scene that is used to showcase the beautiful landscape, full of dense botanicals. The hunting scene itself, was from a print made of a French tapestry, owned by the Medici family.  Hunting was a sign of status, leisure, and aristocracy.

How the Screen was Used

This decorative object was commissioned by Viceroy Jose Sarmiento of New Spain for his palace in Mexico City. It had the utilitarian function of dividing the room to make it look more intimate.

The screen was also a conversation piece at the height of fashion in 17^th century Mexico. This would have been viewed by important visitors and their spouses, who came to visit the Viceroy. It also served to politically connect New Spain with the power and events of the Spanish Hapsburgs in Europe.

The landscape side of the screen had a different purpose. It would have been viewed by females having a social get together such as hot chocolate.

The Story

Japanese goods were immensely popular in Spanish viceroyalties. These objects passed through Mexico on ships heading for Europe.

The Viceroy’s wife was descendent of Moctezuma II. This is an example how the Aztec and Spanish lineage combined to create a new heritage for Mexico.

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Early European and Colonial Art

200- 1750

Topic 3.4 Purpose and Audience  in Early European and Colonial American Art