Early European & Colonial Americas 3.1

Early European and Colonial American Art

200- 1750

 

Topic 3.1 Cultural Contexts of Early European and Colonial American Art

The art and architecture created by Medieval European artists and architects was heavily influenced by purpose and audience. The shared artistic forms, functions, and techniques.  These works were often influenced by both earlier and contemporary cultures. This is evident in places of worship. For example the Great Mosque’s influence on the Alhambra, or Chartres Cathedral’s influence on numerous cathedral architecture that followed.

Renaissance and Baroque

The Renaissance and Baroque traditions built upon those established in the Medieval period and expanded upon them to include new technological and cultural developments. The cultural shift that took place during the Renaissance in Europe led artists to explore secular subjects in addition to religious works, such as scenes from everyday life like Bruegel’s Hunters in the Snow or Ruysch’s Fruit and Insects.

Art through the Centuries

The arts of 15th-century Europe reflected an interest in classical models, enhanced naturalism, Christianity, pageantry, and increasingly formalized artistic training. ***See detail 15^th-century art pages.

The 16th-century Protestant Reformation and subsequent Catholic Counter-Reformation compelled a divergence between western European art in the north and south with respect to form, function, and content. Production of religious imagery declined in northern Europe, and nonreligious genres, such as landscape, still life, genre, history, mythology, and portraiture, developed and flourished. In the south, there was an increase in the production of political propaganda, religious imagery, and pageantry, with naturalism, dynamic compositions, bold color schemes, and the affective power of images and  constructed spaces.

***See details 16th-century art pages.

In the 17^th– century, architectural design and figuration in painting and sculpture continued to be based on classical principles and formulas, but with interest in compositional complexity, dynamic movement, and theatricality. There was an increasing emphasis on time, narrative, heightened naturalism, and  psychological or emotional impact. ***See details 17th-century art pages.

(3) 48. Catacomb of Priscilla.

200-400 CE. Rome, Italy. Late Roman Empire (Early Christian).

Learning Objective: Christian catacomb

Themes:

Funerary
Place of worship
Biblical
Religion
Community

The Catacomb on Priscilla, just north of Rome, Italy, occupies over five miles of underground burials that are three stories deep. Over 40,000 tombs were discovered inside.  It is made from natural quarries of tufa, a stone that is soft and easy to carve.

Inside are frescos, which shows a Roman influence with sketchy painterly brushstrokes that evoke Pompeiian painting. Yet, much of the work has been destroyed due to the humidity inside the catacombs.

What is a Catacomb?

A catacomb is an underground cemetery with subterranean pathways. Catacombs provided a place of early Christian worship, during the age of the Roman Empire, when they were prosecuted. Catacombs are where some of the earliest Christians are buried. It is the beginning of creation of Christian iconography and Christian symbolism.

The Greek Chapel

Named for the two Greek inscriptions in the room, The Greek Chapel, is a cubicula or mortuary room, and is a place for worship. It has three niches, called loculi for sarcophagi.  It is decorated in the style of the first Roman wall painting, imitating marble panels. The painted scenes referred to divine intervention and Christ’s miracles.

The Orant fresco or Cubiculum of the Veiled Woman, depicts one woman three times in a continuous narrative about the life of a Christian woman. On the left a bishop is officiating her marriage. On the right she is seated, nursing her newborn baby in a scene about motherhood. The large figure in the center is in orant or prayer pose. This symbolizes her blessed afterlife once she fulfills her familial obligations.

In the Good Shepherd frescoes, Christ is depicted as a shepherd. Prior to Constantine, Christ was often depicted this way, or as a young teacher. After the Edict of Milan, Christ is shown as a judge or king. This is because of the political and cultural changes regarding Christianity’s validity.

In the medallion or circle, the portrait of Christ as a Good Shepherd, is a pastoral motif going back to the Greek Calf Bearer. The symbolism is that Christ will rescue individual sinners who stray from his flock, just like a shepherd does for sheep.  Notice the cross design of the ceiling which is domed like the Dome of Heaven.

Who was Priscilla?

These catacombs are built underneath a villa, once owned by a wealthy woman named Priscilla. This is how she decided to help sponsor the poor, as only the upper class could afford the cubicula and buy sarcophagi.

In 313 CE, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which not only forbid Christian persecution, but tolerated Christianity within Roman empire. Until the sanction of the state, Christians remained hidden in small numbers. The religion attracted the poor, with a promise of a better afterlife. Since rich and poor were judged on equal terms Priscilla and other wealthy Christians, believe that the poor deserved a proper burial.

The First Examples of Christian Art

Why did Christianity exist for 200 years without artistic production? There are many theories. Some think that it may not have survived. Others think the 2^nd commandment prohibited it.

Still another theory is that they wanted their religion to be new, which focused on monotheism, not to replicate the Greco-Roman traditions that focused on polytheism and nudity.

(3) 60. Chartres Cathedral

Gothic Europe. Original construction: 1145-1155 CE. Reconstructed 1194-1220 CE. Gothic.

Learning Objectives: Gothic cathedral

Themes:

Architecture
Innovation
Place of worship
Religion
Light
Relic
Biblical
Pilgrimage
Devotional object

What is the Difference Between A Church and a Cathedral?

A church is smaller and has a priest. A cathedral is larger and has a bishop.

Gothic Innovation

The architects of this stunning limestone cathedral, with stained glass windows, in Chartres, France, about an hour south of Paris, is unknown.  Gothic style is known for decorative design, detail, and ornamentation. This style of architecture was developed in the Ile de France area around Paris, that was ruled by the King of France.

Pointed arches were created by moving rounded Roman arches upward. This enables the stress lines to move inward towards the ground, not out diagonally. With taller arches, the roof of the buildings could be raised creating taller ceilings. This resulted in a need for light. Stained glass became prevalent in Gothic architecture. It allowed not only sunshine through but provided a highly decorative feature.

These raised elements caused less weight on the structures, resulting in thinner walls. To support these walls flying buttresses were installed to hold the arches, right at the point that they were straightening.

The Façade

The façade of the building is simple. There is a tower on the left, a center structure called a westwork, which is the church entrance, and a tower on the right. The westwork was part of the original Romanesque church, which is why it looks heavy against the Gothic cathedral. The tower on the left is the newer Gothic tower. The tower on the right is the older Romanesque tower.

At the top is what is called King’s Gallery, with sculptures of Old Testament royal figures.  Underneath is a rose window, a circular stained-glass window, as was a typical adornment for the front of a Gothic church. It symbolized Mary, a rose without thorns.  Below are three lancet windows, a type of window that are pointed shaped.  The portals below are covered with sculpture.

The Floor Plan

The church retains its cross-basilica plan shape. Church goers entered the cathedral through the middle doors to attend mass. Pilgrims, who were interested in seeing the church’s relics could enter the axillary doors on the far right. Then, circle around and exit the doors on the far left, without disturbing mass.

The Nave

The cathedral’s nave is 50 feet long, with a tall ceiling above at 118 feet. Here there is a three-part elevation. The Nave arcade on the lower level contains pointed arches. The triforium, on second story cannot, unlike a gallery, be occupied. It gets this name from its common three arch pattern. There is clerestory on the third story with windows. Here each bay of the nave has two lancet windows, or pointed window, with one oculus, or round window on top. All contain stained glass.

The three segments of elevation are united by a compound pier, or a pier with a group of columns bundled together.  Notice the compound piers have columns that draw your eye upward to the ceiling to create the rib vaults. Rib vaults are used to help buttress the pointed vault ceiling where it may be weakest.  Rib vaults can be quadripartite, or four, like this one, or sexpartite, meaning six.

Function

The cathedral holds a Marian Devotion, or the Gothic fascination with Mary. Many objects and churches were dedicated to her. The Sancta Camisa of Mary, is said to have been given to the Catholic Church by Charlemagne after a trip to Jerusalem.

The church symbolizes Mary’s body. The ribs in the interior literally symbolizes Mary’s ribs. The idea was that if Christ grew in Mary’s womb, then we are the children of Mary, would grow within the literal ribs of the church.

Chartres had a cathedral school where classes were taught.  Thus, Mary’s position as Throne of Wisdom was connected to the scholarly activities of this school.

There was a new focus on geometry of the building, through which it approximates Heaven. Mathematics grew in interest as it was believed God created the world according to perfect measurements. The church sought to mirror these measurements and therefore also become divine, as a heaven on earth. The dimensions are literally based on what the Bible says the dimensions are of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem

Let There Be Light

The admittance of light was symbolic of Christ’s presence and divinity in the church. It was also symbolic of the annunciation where the presence of light parallels Christ and the building parallels Mary’s body. Just as Christ passed into Mary’s womb, the light passes into the church.

SUB IMAGE 1: Notre Dame de la Belle Verrière

The title of this stained-glass panel, in vibrant blues, reds, purples and white, held together in a led structure, means Our Lady of the Beautiful Glass. The Virgin Mary is shown enthroned with her feet resting on a footstool.

Mary is dressed in royal blue, and haloed with a white veil, which falls on either side of her head.  Blue colored fabric was expensive at the time when most people were dressed in earth tomes. The color blue symbolized the night sky, which is appropriate, as she was called the Queen of Heaven,

Mary, was in fact royalty, as a descendent of the kings of Judea. Since Christ was her son, he too was royalty. From the beginning, this indicated to Christians that this was part of God’s plan.

Throne of Wisdom (Sedes Sapientae) ( PORTAL AT FRONT)

Christ is seated on Mary’s lap. Her right hand is raised in blessing. Her left hand holds an open book which says, “Every valley shall be fille.” This is in reference to Luke 3:5 about clearing the way for Christ’s love.

Most of the population of Europe was illiterate at this time and could not read the Bible. Bibles were rare and expensive. There were no printing presses then,  so everything had to be copied by hand. People learned the stories of the Bible, by hearing the words of the priest in church, and by looking at decoration in the church.

Christ appears to be an old-man baby. This is to depict that the Christ child has enormous wisdom even as a baby.

There is a white dove over Mary that extends three rays of light towards Mary’s halo.  This is a reference to the Trinity, and also that Mary acted as an intercessor between God the father and God the son. Six angels gather around Mary and Christ, holding candles and incense.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Great Portal of the West Façade)

The portal is the entrance to a church. Jambs and jamb figures are columns surrounding the door, and figures on them. This is nicknamed the Royal Portal because the jamb figures depict Old Testament royalty and therefore the relatives of Christ.

The figures are very elongated with no sense of weigh. The heads are lined up together, but the bodies have different lengths with feet dangling down.

There is no sense of classicism, instead they are rigid, with bodies conformed to column shapes. The clothing has a sense of folds, with no human shape underneath.

History of the Site

Historians say it was likely there was once a Druid temple here. Next there was a Roman temple, that was converted into a Christian church by the 3^rd century. Then, in the 9^th century the church received a relic from Constantinople –the tunic of Mary. It was rumoured to have been given to the Catholic Church by Charlemagne after a trip to Jerusalem.

There was a Romanesque Church constructed  here between 1145 – 1155 CE. This church burned to the ground in 1194. The tunic  was believed to be lost!

Then, three days later, the tunic was discovered unharmed in the crypt below the church. This was seen as a true miracle! The interpretation of this event was that Mary wanted to get rid of the old Romanesque style church, so that a Gothic church could be built for her tunic. A new Gothic church was constructed from 1194 – 1220, but the old Romanesque façade remained.

The Gothic era was a hard time to live through. Diseases spread. Wars prevailed. Interest in Mary developed, as Mary became the figure you could appeal to, and she would intercede on your behalf. Marian Devotion or Cult of the Virgin along with increased participation in Church life.

(3) 63. Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel.

Unknown architect and artist Giotto di Bondone. Italian. Chapel : 1303 CE. ; Frescoes: 1305 CE.  Proto-Renaissance.

Learning Objective: Proto-Renaissance painting

Themes:

Religion
Biblical
Place of worship
Death
Offering
Human and divine
Private
Status
Didactic

The architect of the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel in Padua, Italy is unknown. Artist Giotto di Bondone, designed the interior space so complementary to the exterior, that many believe he may have also been the architect of the 42 feet tall structure.

Unadorned, and made of brick on the exterior, and vastly decorative on the inside, it utilizes the old Christian symbolism of beautiful interior (soul) and austere exterior (body).

The simple basilica planned as an AKA rectangular barrel-vaulted hall.

Painting Frescoes

A buon fresco, or a wet or true fresco, starts with an application of wet plaster onto a wall. The wet plaster is then painted with tempera paint, made with egg yolk and pigment. This method  enables the paint to soak into the plaster, rather than just painting it and letting it dry on top of the wall. This makes the work durable, but speed is important.

Giornata, in Italian is an art term meaning “a day’s work”. When creating a buon fresco, an artist must complete it in a day. When it dries the paint changes color, and it is impossible to remix the paint to match exactly.

Sub- Image Church Interior  

SUB IMAGE 1: Chapel Interior

The figures in Giotto’s frescoes are painted in sculpturesque style. They are weighty, full-bodied figures, with a convincing spatial depth. The bodies are rounded and naturally make shadows through modeling.

The figures also exhibit a foreshortening, by turning parallel to the picture plane and receding back.  The composition is simple using a shallow stage.

Blue paint is used on the ceiling and in every panel to create visual unity. It is doted with gold stars, as if the viewer is looking into Heaven.

Why was the Chapel Built?

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel was built by Enrico Scrovegni, from a prominent banking family. He wanted to atone for his sins of charging interest on a loan or the act of usury. Dante, in his novel, Divine Comedy even singles out the Scrovegni family for this sin.

It was named Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, because it was right by an old Roman area, which was part of the Scrovegni estate.  This kind of art was known as good work to help the patron earn his way into heaven.  Enrico Scrovegni himself appears in the Last Judgement fresco on the side of the blessed.

The chapel was intended for the private use of the Scrovegni family. It was a sign of great wealth to be able to build such a place.

Frescos Inside the Church

There are three registers of paintings, in reference to the Trinity.

• Top level: life of Mary starts with her parents Joachim and Anna.
• Middle level: Life of Jesus (Nativity, Presentation at the Temple, Flight to Egypt)
• Lower level (closest to churchgoers): Passion of Christ (return to Jerusalem à Resurrection)

The altar wall:

• • Annunciation at the entrance
  • Last Judgment at the exit

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Lamentation)

Lamentation is the scene when Christ has been taken down from the cross, with followers around him mourning him. It is a group scene of the event, unlike the Pieta, which was just Mary and Christ. A range of emotions are displayed: sadness, resignation, outbursts, and despair.

Here, Mary holds Christ in a manner similar to other Mary and Christ Child scenes or Nativity scenes. She raises her right knee to prop Christ up. She puts her arm around him and leans towards him.

The diagonal cliff formation points the eye to the main action placed in the lower-left hand corner. Christ is no longer center, no longer heraldic, no longer hierarchical. This is a departure from Medieval tradition.

Mary Magdalene sits at Christ’s feet, and her long, red curly hair, references how she had earlier cleaned Christ’s feet, with oil and her hair. John the Evangelist stands behind her. He is the youngest disciple and always depicted beardless.

The angels are in grief, pulling on their hair. While the figures at the back encircle the action. They do not provide information to the narrative but are a visual to the entrance of the painting.

What is Typology?

 Typology is the study and interpretation of stories and symbols in the Bible, especially the relationship between  the Old and New Testaments. Here is how this is used in Lamentation.

The land is baren except for a single dead tree. This is the Tree of Life, which withered at the fall of Adam.  Christ is often thought of as the second Adam. This also gives reference to Winter and Christ’s death, before Spring and the eventual resolution.

In the quatrefoil to the left, Jonah is being swallowed by a whale, from the Old Testament story.  Jonah is often seen as a typological precursor to Christ.  He suffered a “death” in the belly of the whale for three days. Then he was spit out. This was seen as a resurrection.

About the Artist

Giotto di Bondone (1276- 1377) is considered the first artist of the Renaissance because he departs from the Gothic style and begins to place three-dimensional solid figures in a real and logical space. Art historians speculate that he was trained by Florentine painter, Cimabue, because their styles were so similar.

Born just outside of Florence, he would paint chapels in not only Florence, but Assisi, Rome, Padua, and Naples. He is regarded as the most important Italian painter in the 14^th century.

 

(3) 64. Golden Haggadah.

Late medieval Spain (Jewish). 1320 CE. Late Gothic / International Gothic.

 

Learning Objective: Jewish illuminated manuscript

Themes:

Cross-cultural
Religion
Biblical
Didactic
Status
Text and image
Appropriation
Materials with significance

Museum: British Library

This Gothic style of text was popular across Europe. It included the elongation of thin, delicate figures, lack of logical space, and Gothic decorative architectural elements.  Gold-leaf backgrounds were frequently used in books of this nature.

The word haggadah means narration in Hebrew.

In the Golden Haggadah, this illuminated manuscript, using pigment on vellum, the scribe was Jewish and someone who knew how to write in Hebrew. It is written from right to left. Some pages have just text. Other pages have miniatures that were illustrated. There are 56 of these in total.

The artist was Christian and someone who knew the style of Christian illuminated manuscripts. It contains anachronistic styles of clothing and homes that do not match the historical information of the Biblical era.

This is one of the most luxurious examples of a Haggadah ever created. The gold illumination led to the name Golden Haggadah.

Function of the Golden Haggadah

The pages contain the narrative Passover that includes a celebrational meal called a Seder. It was made for a wealthy Jewish family in Barcelona. This was one way of displaying the status and wealth of the owners.

Books were incredibly expensive to make at that time. The Golden Haggadah was even more so with its extensive use of extra gold illumination. Therefore, it was more ceremonial in nature, than a book to read. It is still in excellent condition.

Inside the Book

Haggadahs include prayers and readings said during the Seder, along with images to help contribute to the storyline.

SUB-IMAGE 1 (The Plagues of Egypt)

 

In the top right, frogs overrun the land. On the top left the Egyptians are inflicted with terrible boils. At the bottom right wild animals invade, while at the bottom left a pestilence kills wild animals.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (The Scenes of Liberation)

The page shows four boxed sections. The box to the upper right contains three images about a first-born child. In the top right an angel strikes a first-born.  In the top left the Egyptian queen mourns her first-born. Across the bottom the royal first-born is buried.

In the top left box, the Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave Egypt. Israelites hold up their hands illustrating the verse, “And the children of Israel went out with a high hand.”

At the bottom right, the Pharaoh changes his mind. He sends Egyptian soldiers to find the Hebrews. At the bottom left, the Hebrews have safely crossed the Red Sea. Moses lets the sea go and it washes away the Egyptian soldiers.

SUB-IMAGE 3 (Preparation for Passover)

At the top right, Miriam, the sister of Moses, and her maidens dance and play musical instruments. The instruments have Islamic motifs on them.  At the top left, the master of the house, sitting under a canopy, orders the distribution of matzoh and haroset to the children.

At the bottom right, the house is cleaned for Passover and leavened bread is removed. At the bottom left, sheep are slaughtered. ( Shown at the top)

The Story of Passover

This is the story of a miraculous salvation from slavery. It is tradition to recount it annually at Passover Seder. The evening begins, when a child at the table asks, “Why is this night different from all other nights?” This sets up the ritual narration of the story of Passover, when Moses led the Jews from slavery.

• Moses tries to ask Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go.
• Pharaoh says no.
• God works through Moses to deliver ten plagues to Pharaoh, each one worse and worse, to force Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go.
• Finally, the greatest plague God could send was the death of all first-borns, to protect Hebrew families.
• God instructs Hebrews to mark their doors with animal blood so that the Angel of Death will pass over those homes.
• Pharaoh’s oldest child, his son and heir to the throne dies.
• Pharaoh is devastated and agrees that God must be who he says he is.
• Pharoah lets the Hebrews go.
• Moses tries to lead the Hebrews to the promised land.
• Pharaoh regrets his decision and sends his army after them.
• To allow the Hebrews to escape, Moses parts the Red Sea.
• When the soldiers arrive, Moses lets the sea go. It washes away all the soldiers.

The Story of the Golden Haggadah

Although the 2^nd commandment in Judaism forbids the making of graven images, the haggadahs were exempt from this rule. This was because they were seen as educational and not just decorative.

This is an example of cross-cultural borrowing in medieval Spain.

• Christian illuminated manuscript format appropriated by Jews.
• Jewish text
• Spanish artist
• Spanish Jewish family
• Islamic musical instruments

Wealthy Jewish families often worked as advisers, physicians, and financiers so they were exposed to Christian court styles.

(3) 65.  Alhambra Palace.

Nasrid Dynasty.1354 – 1393 CE.  Islamic.

Learning Objective: Islamic palace

Themes:

Domestic space
Palace
Public
Politics
Technology
Water
Power
Status
Private
Appropriation
Rulers

 Alhambra Palace, in Granada, Spain, is a whitewashed adobe made from stucco, wood, tile, paint and gilding. It is comprised of 1 mile of walls, and 32 towers. It rests upon Sabika Hill, on over 26 acres of land. This was a strategic vantage point for defense.

The exterior is plain and austere. There are many open passageways and courtyards, so sun and air could be freely admitted.

The Alcazaba and Royal Palace

Alhambra Palace was originally  built as an alcazaba or Islamic fortress for military purposes, with a citadel and barracks for elite guard. This beautiful architectural work was also a Royal Arab residence used as propaganda to show off the power of the Nasrid kings.

It was a place to bring guests or ambassadors to show them the luxury and lavish life of the Nasrids. The elite enjoyed elaborate courtyards and gardens, which often included water. This created a sense of harmony and tranquility. Water is a major decorative element in Islam that promotes reflection, cooling, and peaceful qualities.

After the conquests of the Muslims in Spain, it was converted into a Christian Palace.

Then, it was converted into a Christian palace after the conquest of Muslims in Spain.

A Walk Through

Alcazaba is the oldest part of the Alhambra. It was built by Mohammed I, who used it as his place of residence. Historians believe it was built over a Roman fortress. The rulers lived here until the rest of the palace was complete.

The Palace was organized around two central courtyards and included watch towers. It was highly decorated and made to feel like a “Paradise on Earth.”

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Court of the Lions)

The Court of the Lions  is an oblong court that was surrounded by 124 slender columns. Each column connects to an arch that uses muqarnas. The columns and muqarnas arches were supposed to be reminiscent of palm trees that let light in but create patterns of shadow on the ground.

There is a lion fountain in the centre, built and engineered by Muhammad V. It is supported by twelve lionesses. Each hour on the hours a lioness would produce water out of her mouth, as a representation of a clock keeping time.

The fountain utilized a complex hydraulics system, using two water channels that formed a cross in the center of the courtyard. The fountain apparently baffled all who saw it, even inspiring a poem about it by Ibn Zamrak.

Although, not designed with anatomical accuracy, it was intended to show strength and power. Historians speculate that the four to the two water channels is associated with the four rivers of Paradise. The water flowing through suggests giving life. Although the 12 lions represent the 12 hours on a clock, they could also represent the 12 signs of the zodiac.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Hall of Two Sisters)

This hall was in the center of a series of rooms where the sultana and her family lived. It had a highly sophisticated and refined interior.

The ceiling was made from 5000 muqarnas pieces reflecting light to create a delicate and open interior. It contained eight studded star shapes to represent the eight levels of paradise. There were 16 windows spread across two levels.

The Hall of Two Sisters was not named for siblings, rather it was name for two large twin marble flagstones that make up the floor.

Historical Background

• • Built by the Nasrids, the final Islamic dynasty that controlled Al-Andalus
  • Nasrids gained control in 1237 and named their kingdom Granada
  • 1492: Catholics Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada and made the Alhambra a Christian court

(3) 66. Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece).

Workshop of Robert Campin. Flemish. 1427-1432 CE. 15^th century. Northern Renaissance.

Learning Objective: 15^th century Northern altarpiece

Themes:

Biblical
Devotional object
Iconography
Status
Human and divine
Ideal woman
Private
Water

Museum: Metropolitan Museum (Cloisters)

Artists often worked in workshops, with assistants and apprentices. This work has been attributed to the Tournai workshop of Robert Campin. He had two assistants: Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret. The Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece) is a three-paneled work of oil on oak wood and has two wings that fold in to cover the main panel. It measures 25 by 46 feet.

The Work Exhibits Northern Ren Characteristics:

• Meticulous handling of paint due to intricacy of oil work application
• Oil paint allowing for new reflective surfaces of linseed oil and pigment.
• Annunciation in an everyday Flemish interior
• No halos to humanize the images.
• Gothic elongation/stylization and illogical spaces remained popular in the North.

Symbolism and Iconography

Religious messages were embedded in disguised symbolism and iconography.

• Disguised symbolism: common place objects full of religious significance, requiring an iconographic reading of the artwork.
• Iconography: Identification and interpretation of symbols or objects within an image.

A Closer Look at the Triptych

The Center Panel

 The center panel shows Northern Ren characteristics.

The angel Gabriel has just entered the Virgin Mary’s home and is about to announce that she will be the mother of Jesus. Mary is still unaware of the angel’s presence. She is seated on the floor, indicating that she is humble. Above her are beamed ceiling. There is a second story to this home showing great wealth.

Disguised Symbolism in the Center Panel

• Towels and water are a symbol of cleanliness. Think baptism, Mary’s cleanliness and purity, and Jewish prayer cloth.
• Flowers are white lilies, called the Madonna Lilies, symbolizing Mary’s purity.
• Three buds are a symbol of the Trinity.
• Unopened bud, opened bud, dying bud.
• Mary holds the bible in a cloth, like her body holding the Christ child/piety.
• Scroll and book on table symbolize the Old and New Testament with a supremacy of New vs Old.
• Lion finials on the benches symbolizes the king of animals like Christ is king of men.
• There are 16 sides to the table, reference to 16 main Hebrew prophets.
• The table is supposed to be an altar. Angel Gabriel wears the clothing of a deacon.
• Mary blocks the entrance of fireplace, commonly thought of as the way the devil enters.
• Folds of Mary’s cloth form a star. Mary was queen of Heaven.
• A candlestick. The flame is typically symbol of God’s presence. A candle going out is foreshadowing Christ’s crucifixion.
• The sun shines through the oculus window bringing a cross. Christ enters with out breaking glass as in the divine conception.
• Christ heads straight towards the white lilies symbolized Mary’s purity.
• Christ heads toward her ear. This symbolizes the word of God, spoken by Angel Gabriel, that was heard by Mary was the way she became pregnant.

The Right Panel

Joseph in his carpentry workshop. The cult of St. Joseph was becoming increasingly popular, as he was loving father and head of holy family. The mousetrap is a common symbol of capturing the devil.

The Left Panel

The left panel is the donor panel. It shows the patrons kneeling before the holy scene, with a messenger in the background. The messenger is carrying an important letter to the family.

The donor is believed to be Engelbrecht of Mechelen, a burgher, or city councilman.   The status and piety of both he and his wife is evident.

The wife is wearing a dress with an excess of fabric in the sleeves. This is fashionable, but not necessary, showing a sign of wealth. She holds prayer beads and looks down in humility. He takes his hat off as a sign of respect.

The couple are witnessing the Annunciations. The viewer is expected to think these two people are pious enough to bear witness to this important religious event.

What was the Function of the Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

 This piece was commissioned as a private piece that could be portable. The altarpiece was meant to encourage piety. Given it is an Annunciation scene, this was likely meant to parallel this couple’s own hopes for a child.

The work was also a sign of status. The new middle class wanted to buy art to decorate their homes.

The Background Story

This altarpiece was executed in phases. It is thought that the central panel was probably not commissioned. Artists often created them, know that they would sell.

The male donor, Engelbrecht of Mechelen ordered the wings. After getting married Engelbrecht’s wife and the messenger were added in.

The windows of the central panel were originally gold, but were then painted with a blue sky and the shields were added.

(3) 71. Madonna and Child with Two Angels.

Fra Filippo Lippo. Italian. 1465 CE. 15th century. Italian Renaissance.

 

Learning Objective: 15^th century Southern religious painting

Themes:

Ideal woman
Family
Biblical
Religion
Devotional object

Museum: Uffizi

This work by Fra Filippo Lippo was created using tempera, a mix of pigment and egg yolk, on wood panel, measuring 3 feet 2 inches by 2 feet 2 inches.  The “Fra” part of the artist’s name means “monk”. And indeed, he was one!

Renaissance paintings were referred to as “windows into the world”.  Not only is that supposed to refer to the illusionism and representation of the painting, but Lippi used a windowsill and window frame to show us that idea.

The Byzantine/Gothic elongations of the hands, face and body have been replaced with a solidarity of form but emphasizes her prettiness. Lippi is known for his delicate swirls of transparent fabric, with an emphasis on lines and curves. He uses chiaroscuro the gradual contrast between light and dark to show roundness and a sense of volume.

The landscape uses atmospheric perspective and shows the natural blurring of blue-gray tones that occurs when our eye moves back into space.

Who Commissioned This Work?

Lippi’s major patrons were the wealthy Medici banking family, yet no one knows for sure if they commissioned it. Historians know that it was used to guide worship and prayer, and as a sign the display the piety of the owner.

The Human Side of Religion

The scene was a popular type in the Italian Renaissance, as it helped to humanize religion. It reminds the viewer that Mary was a normal mother and Christ her beloved son.

 Content

Mary’s hands are devoutly clasped in prayer. Her youth and beauty are evident, with her hair elegantly embellished with pearls and a veil. There is just a glint of a halo. Yet, she seems a little sombre and Christians believed this was her foreshadowing about what would happen to her son.

Playful, childlike angels stand around. Christ appears like a naturalistic, normal baby. Gone are the Gothic like depictions of him as an old-man baby.

The backdrop is a seashore, with rocks and land indicating the safe haven of the church. The city is meant to be Heavenly Jerusalem. Mary was referred to as the “port of salvation”.

Renaissance Philosophies

During the Renaissance, the classics were revived along with the three classical philosophies: Idealism, Humanism, Rationalism. All three are depicted in this work.

Idealism: Mary is depicted in her idealized youth.

Humanism: Mary and Christ are depicted as in a family portrait.

Rationalism: Mary and Christ are calm. They do not exhibit emotion and are restrained.

The Story of the Painter

Fra Filippo Lippi, although a monk, had a seedy side to his nature. Vasari, the first art historian and 16^th century Renaissance painter, wrote about Lippi in his book Lives of Artists:

 It is said that Fra Filippo was so lustful that, he would give anything to enjoy a woman he wanted it he thought he could have his way. If he couldn’t buy what he wanted, then he would cool his passion by painting her portrait.

 His lust was so violent that when it took hold of him, he could never concentrate on his work. Because of this, when he was doing something for Cosimo de’ Medici, his main patron, Cosimo had to have Lippi locked in so he wouldn’t wander off.

 One time, after Lippi had been confined for a few days, Fra Filippo’s amorous, or rather animal, instincts, drove him one night to seize a pair of scissors, make a rope from his own bedsheets and escape through a window to pursue his pleasures for days on end!

Vasari continues he story by saying that at a certain point Cosimo just had to give in and learn to treat the painter with respect. The prevailing attitude was that art was created by a skilled worker. Cosimo learned that the artist had to be inspired to create.

And Lippi continued to be inspired. He painted an alter piece for the nuns of St Margherita in Prato.

There, he saw a beautiful nun named Lucrezia Buti. He abducted Lucrezia and kept her in his house, despite the nuns’ attempts to get her back.

Lucrezia inspired the images of his female figures, with her pale alabaster soft skin and strawberry blonde hair. The image of Mary in Madonna and Child with Two Angels is based on her.

More About the Artist

Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-1496) was born in Florence. In 1420, he was registered to the Community of Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence. He took his vows at age 16. The prior noting that the teen loved to draw in his notebooks, allowed him to learn to paint.  Soon after, the budding artist tried to quit the order, but the request was denied. He was appointed to work for a convent and then a rectory.

He continued to paint, but it is rumored that the money he received was spent on women. It is also rumored that Lucrezia Buti bore him a son. The son was named Fillippino Lippi. While he too would become a famous painter, who his mother may have been was never certain.

Filippo Lippi died while working on the frescos in the asp of Spoleto Cathedral. Fillippino completed his father’s work.

(3) 72. Birth of Venus

Sandro Botticelli. Italian. 1484-1486 CE. 15^th century. Italian Renaissance.

Learning Objective: 15^th century. Southern secular painting

Themes:

Status
Revival
Ideal woman
Female nude
Philosophy
Appropriation

Museum: Uffizi in Florence

Sandro Botticelli’s masterpiece Birth of Venus, is painted with tempura on canvass and measures 5 feet 6 inches by 9 feet. It is based on the classical sculptures of Venus. The Medici family owned the sculpture Modest Venus, so the artist was able to study it. Fine modelling or chiaroscuro and the white flesh color add to the sculptural appearance of Venus. The contrapposto positioning adds to the grace.

A Closer Look at the Birth of Venus

 The classical subject matter shows Venus, the goddess of love, being born, as a fully formed woman and physically perfect.  Hesiod, a classical poet, said Venus was conceived when Chronos castrated his father, Uranus, whose severed organs fertilized the sea foam.

The goddess is depicted on a shell, the sign of Venus. Pink roses are scattered before her. The classics say roses were created at same time as Venus, indicating love is beautiful, but can be painful.

Venus is then blown towards the shore of Cyprus, by Zephyrus, the god of the wind. His cheeks are puffed out. Entwined around him is a nymph, either Chloris or Aura. At the shores waits Flora, the goddess of Spring or a handmaiden.

Venus has a faraway look in her eyes, as if not bothered by mortal concerns. She exhibits Renaissance philosophies: Idealism, Humanism, Rationalism.

Classical with a Twist

Botticelli’s Venus is based on the Modest Venus pose that was particularly popular in the classical Greek era. This pose involves Venus covering up her breasts and hips.

Botticelli would have seen these sculptures through his patrons, the Medici family, who owned a number of classical sculptures of Venus.

Despite being based on classical sculptures of Venus, Botticelli’s version has unusual dimensions. She has elongated portions in her neck, left arm, and torso.

Her serpentine pose is gravitationally impossible. The figures around her float, without anchor to the ground. In fact, they do not give of shadows.

The landscape is flat. The waves are v shaped. There is a great emphasis on pattern, from the flowers free floating in the air to the left, to the flowered fabric to the right. The seashell gives a patterned look of light and dark stripes. This reminds the viewer that it is a two-dimensional work.

Botticelli uses the technique of pushing figures forward onto a parallel plane to the picture plane, with a background behind them. This is based on ancient Greek vase painting where figures are isolated from the background.

The artist emphasizes a graceful curving linearity, rather than a calm rational sense of space. Notice the delicate, twisting, curling lines.

Botticelli mixed expensive alabaster powder into the pigment to make the colors brighter. The artist also added exquisite gold leaf into Venus’ hair.

Canvas Versus Wood

 The Birth of Venus is one of the first paintings ever to be painted on canvas. Using canvas was cheaper than wood, which allowed for much larger paintings. Canvas also withstands humidity well. Whereas wood can warp. The one drawback was that canvas was considered informal, so it was only used for non-official works. Yet, the mediums used to create this work are of a superior quality.

Function

No documentation associated with the painting has been found. Vasari does mention this as a Medici painting in his book. It was painted for Lorenzo de’ Medici, the powerful head of the Medici clan, at the time. Historians think that the inspiration for Venice was Lorenzo’s mistress Simonetta Cattaneo. She was also the mistress of his brother Giulio de’ Medici!

Both Lorenzo and Botticelli were interested in the revival of ancient myths. This work was unusual at the time, because not only is the almost life-sized and nude, she is not portrayed in a biblical context. Some scholars think it was placed in a bedroom, due to its sexual nature.

A Christian Interpretation

After Savonarola’s death, when a new level of religiosity spread through Florence, a Christian interpretation of this painting emerged. This made the work more acceptable at the time. Some ideas included:

• Nudity of Venus echoes that of Eve in Garden of Eden.
• Venus was interpreted as a personification of the Church.
• One of Mary’s nicknames is “stella maris” – star of the sea.
• The sea gives birth to Venus just as Mary gives birth to Christ.

Philosophy Based on Platonism

Platonism was a popular philosophy in Renaissance times. It stated that the contemplation of physical beauty enabled the human mind to comprehend spiritual beauty. It justified the serious study of classical nudity, or any nudity, to understand God’s capacity to create beauty and perfection. Historians consider this an excuse to study nude women.

Short Artist Biography

Sandro Botticelli was a student of Lippi, who was credited for much of what the artist learned. Botticelli was considered innovative for depicting female nudity in a secular, or non-Christian way. In fact, the Birth of Venus was the first non-religious nude, male, or female, to be depicted since classical antiquity. Even Donatello’s David was a nude biblical figure! Botticelli’s work would lead to the tradition of depicting female nudes in art history.

Botticelli later felt guilty about the work he created. Fra Savonarola, a famous friar denounced art, nudity, classicism, sexuality and what he perceived to be the excesses and corruption of the Medici family and Florentines as a whole. The friar’s followers took part Bonfire of the Vanities in 1497, where artwork and books were burned. The Birth of Venus survived.

Botticelli was so influenced by Savonarola’s sermons that he suffered a nervous breakdown. As a result, he became deeply religious. Eventually he abandoned fine art painting altogether.

(3) 75. Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes. Michelangelo. Italian. Buon fresco. Building: 1483. Ceiling frescoes: 1508-1512 CE. Altar frescoes: 1536-1541 CE. 16^th century. Southern (High Renaissance).

Learning Object: Learning Objective: 16^th century. Southern ceiling fresco

Themes:

Status
Biblical
Place of worship
Power
Propaganda
Human and divine
Water

The Sistine Chapel, in Vatican City, Italy, is a simple basilica, with barrel vault, in classical revival style. It measures 133 feet by 46 feet. What makes it extraordinary is that every surface of space is decorated. There are 300 figures on the ceiling, each one is unique and no two are in the same pose.

Michelangelo was first and foremost a sculptor, but  he  had started learning to paint.

The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel had become quite filthy, with years of dust and candle soot. It was not until the ceilings were cleaned, in the last 20 years, that the work of Michelangelo was revealed. Full, vibrant colors, for a new generation to marvel at!

Creating the Ceiling Art

The artist used a series of complex scaffolding to stand on and paint the ceiling. Before he started to paint, the curved ceiling was a flat blue color, with some decorative stars.

Michelangelo painted the figures first in grisailles, or grays, to get modeling and shadow correct. Then, color was painted over top.

Some of the other techniques the artist used include:

• Trompe l’oeil architecture: French for “tricking the eye” with anything that is illusionistic.
• Quaddro Riportato: “carried picture” that allows a fresco to be seen straight on, in a space parallel to the floor.

Why was the Sistine Chapel Built?

The Sistine Chapel was built to show the power and  legitimacy of the Church and Pope, through extravagance and scope. It is also a statement of artistic genius.

The Pope holds mass here for important guests. This is also the place where new Popes are picked.

Why is it decorated with Old Testament Scenes?

One often wonders why the Catholic Church would choose to have Old Testament scenes created and not New Testament scenes.  In fact, there are no images of Christ on the ceiling at all!

Catholic Church’s claims are validated by emphasizing the prophecies foretold the events in the Old Testament.

Sibyls and Prophets are ancient pagan soothsayers, who could see the future and foretell the coming of Christ.

A Closer Look at Michelangelo’s Work

Michelangelo chose a complicated arrangement of figures for the ceiling.  The work shows the first few chapters of Genesis, with accompanying Old Testament figures and antique sibyls.

Michelangelo’s term for his youthful male nudes, or ignudi are completed in the artist’s own style that  expresses classicism and humanism. Yet,  they do not advance the narrative.

Michelangelo painted these scenes in backwards chronological order. He wanted to perfect his style before he got to the scenes with God.

There are nine main scenes in the narrative that begin at the alter.

The Creation  

• God divides light and dark.
• God creates the sun and planets.
• God divides water from earth.

Adam and Eve

• God creates Adam.
• God creates Eve scenes.
• Adam and Eve’s Temptation and Expulsion

Noah

• Noah’s Sacrifice
• The Flood
• Drunkenness of Noah

SUB-IMAGE #1 (Delphic Sibyl)

Michelangelo took a break from painting and when he returned after 1510, he painted Delphic Sibyl. Her massive form is a basic triangle, in that she widens towards the hips. Circular forms create the scroll, knees, and cloak. While the space she sits in is rigid, her body is round.

 Enhancing the Female Form

Female forms were based off the muscularity of men. Her arms are extremely powerful. Even so, she has a grace and gentleness. In the style of the day, ennobling the female forms made the figures appear stronger and greater.

It was considered inappropriate to sketch a female nude at the time. Male nudes were often substituted. In this case Michelangelo used cadavers to achieve the correct musculature.

The Delphic Sibyl

The word Sibyl was first mentioned by the ancient Greek writer Heraclitus in 500 BC. It was not just Old Testament figures who foretold the coming of Christ. One of the most famous Delphic Sibyls predicted the falling of Troy.

The position of Sibyl was filled by many different women over the years. There were no social or economic criteria for the role, but she had to be wise, in her 40s or 50s, and understand the role of the gods.  On the seventh day of every month, she sat at the Delphic temple on a big rock, with ivy growing on it. Here, she would make prophecies.

Her blue head scarf  acted as a crown or diadem to show her legitimacy.

Creation of Adam

This narrative has been paired down to essentials. God is in sky and Adam is bound to earth.  The figures possess a sculptural quality of both strength and grace. In fact, the depiction of Adam is influenced by the classical sculpture Belvedere Torso. Adam is heroically nude and an ideal beauty. This connects him to the divine.

God and angels sit on a shape like the brain. This indicates that being human is the capacity to think. Under God’s left arm is Eve waiting to be born.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (The Flood)

Michelangelo created this work before 1510. This was prior to his monumental style like that Adam or Delphic Sibyl.

This work shows the story of Noah’s Ark. God decided people were so wicked that he needed to cleanse the earth with a flood and start over. Noah and his family are good, so God tasks them with bringing two of every animal to restart the world.

On the back panel, Noah works on building the ark, only it does not look like a boat.  It looks like the Sistine Chapel! This shows that salvation is the church.

The rest of the work illustrates:

• Far right: Cluster of people seek sanctuary from the rain under a makeshift shelter.
• Far left: People climb up a mountain to escape rising water.
• Center: a boat is about to capsize.

SUB-IMAGE 3 (Last Judgment Fresco)

Pope Paul III commissioned Michelangelo to do create this fresco. Pope brought the master of ceremonies in to watch Michelangelo, even though the artist insisted he did not want anyone to watch him. The master of ceremonies complained that there were too many nudes.

Michelangelo painted this between 1534-1541. By then, the style had changed from High Renaissance to Mannerism . This focused on distortion, with a jumbled composition, and was a reaction against High Renaissance order and harmony.

The work shows the Last Judgment, where Christ returns to Earth in his second coming and judges mankind. On the left,  those who have sinned are separated from the blessed, who will go to heaven, on the right.  On the lower right is Minos, with a serpent wrapped around his chest.

The Story of the Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel was erected, in 1483, under Sixtus IV, hence the name. The Catholic Church was trying to maintain authority, during Protestant rumblings, corruption and extravagance.

Michelangelo began to work on the frescoes for Pope Julius II in 1508. He asked the artist to paint a ceiling with geometric designs and place the 12 disciples in the spandrels. Michelangelo proposed this instead.

About Michelangelo

Michelangelo (1475-1564) was born in Caprese, Republic of Florence, in Italy.  He was an Italian Renaissance sculptor, painter, architect, and poet and considered the greatest living artist in his lifetime.

He trained with painter Ghirlandaio, once his father realized his son had zero interest in school and would therefore never take over the family’s financial business. The boy would first learn the techniques of fresco and draftsmanship.

After one year, he moved into the palace of Lorenzo the Magnificent, head of the Medici clan. Here the artist studied classical sculpture with Bertoldo di Giovanni.

In 1446, he arrived in Rome, at the age of 21. As they say, the rest was history!

The artist will forever be associated with the Italian Renaissance.

(3) 78. Entombment of Christ

Jacopo da Pontormo. Italian. 1525-1528 CE. Capponi Chapel of Santa Felicita. Mannerism.

Learning Objective: 16^th century. Mannerist painting

Themes:

Biblical
Religion
Death
Status

In the Santa Felicita Church, in Florence, Italy, there is a chapel, that was once owned by the Capponi family. They hired artist Jacopo da Pontormo, known as Pontormo. He created the large alter painting Entombment of Christ, measuring 10 feet by 6 feet and 4 inches. It is a work created using oil on wood.

What are the characteristics of Mannerism?

Mannerism took on a departure from the balanced, harmonious, stable composition of the Renaissance. Instead, it used:

• Elegant and intriguing art
• Not ideal, humanistic, or rational
• Elegant, elongated, and distorted.
• Convoluted, complex, vague, confusing, unstable.
• Cluttered, jumbled.
• Figures are arranged along a vertical axis.
• Not in a recognizable earthly setting
• No linear perspective used.
• No pyramidal composition but movement in all directions
• Voids in the middle of painting
• Bright and garish colour palette

Figures in Mannerism

• Figures are stylized, elongated, thin, distorted.
• Positions are not natural.
• Bodies do not bear weight correctly.
• figura serpentinata or a twist in the figure
• Heads are uniformly small.

Worship and Wealth

The Entombment of Christ guided worship in the private chapel, designed by Brunelleschi. The work was visible to the public entering the church, yet it was blocked off to them. This shows the wealth and power of the Capponi family it was named for.

 A Confusing Narrative

The Mannerist quality is intentionally confusing, unlike the clarity and precision of the Renaissance. In this case the viewer is unsure of the narrative. If this is the deposition, where is the cross and the ladder? If this is the pieta, why is there a crowd around? If this is the entombment, where is the tomb?

The Virgin Mary falls way from the viewer towards the back after she releases her dead son’s hand.

Christ is pale. The viewer can see stigmata. He appears to be of generous weight and yet his body is supported without effort. The two figures holding Christ have been interpreted as angels who, unaffected by the weight of Christ’s body, are lifting him towards God.

From High Renaissance to Mannerism

High Renaissance was from 1495- 1527, in Rome. Three major events happened during this time:

1517: Martin Luther’s 95 Theses

1520: Raphael dies from a fever at age 37  school is upturned.

The Renaissance was a time of great perfection in art. Where would artists go now to learn from a great master now? Yet, some of the greatest Mannerist painters that were yet to emerge had trained in Raphael’s workshop.

1527: Sack of Rome by the mutinous troops of HRE Charles V.

Mannerism was a response to the chaos and frustration of the historical events by rejecting perfection in art. Once Mannerism emerged, the word was considered a derogatory term, meaning artists could only paint in a “manner” not in a style. Later, it was these works were created for sophisticated courtiers and royalty.

About the Artist

Jacopo da Pontormo (1494-1557) was born as Jacopo Carrucci, in the Republic of Florence. (Italy) He was known for breaking away from the High Renaissance classicism into his more personal style of Mannerism.  As the son of painter Bartolommeo Carrucci, Pontormo apprenticed to Leonardo da Vince and later Mariotto Albertinelli and Piero di Cosimo.

(3) 79. Allegory of Law and Grace

Lucas Cranach the Elder. German. Woodcut and letterpress. 1530 CE. 16^th century. Northern Renaissance.

Learning Objective: 16^th century Northern woodcut

Themes:

Biblical
Religion
Propaganda
Good vs evil
Print
Text and image
Didactic
Commercial

This woodcut artwork entitled, Allegory of Law and Grace , by Lucas Cranach the Elder, uses the crosshatching and hatching to show modeling.

The Letterpress, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in mid-15^th century, was used for the text at the bottom. Moveable letters could be reinked and rearranged.

Prints are reproducible, simple to make,  and easy to distribute. Artists often made a good painted versions first, to work out the details.

Protestant Reform

This work was created for the purpose of propaganda and is the single most important piece of  Protestant Reformation. It is a comparison between Protestantism and Catholicism and was used to educate the viewer. Prints enabled cheap dissemination.

A Closer Look

The space is divided in half vertically. The Tree of Life is in the center. The left side reflects Catholicism and the philosophy of Catholic law. The right side illustrates Protestantism and the Grace, based on the belief in God’s grace.

Left Side: Catholicism

• Tree is dead on this side
• Adam and Eve eat the fruit of the Tree of Life after being tempted by the serpent.
• God sits above on an orb as the Judge represents the world.
• He raises his left hand in damnation and right hand in blessing.
• Mary and John the Baptist sit beside him.
• Adam and Eve cause the world to be bound by sin.
• A nude man, symbolically laid bare in front of God, is being run into Hell by Devil (L) and Death (R)
• Children and the elderly are already in Hell through the Catholic dogma that people are bound to fail.
• Moses stands to the side, holding the Ten Commandments.

Right side: Protestantism / Grace

• Tree is alive on this side.
• Annunciation in the background with Mary standing on the hill.
• John the Baptist directs a naked man to Christ on the cross.
• The wound on his side made by Romans bleeds and spills out, manifests as the Holy Spirit which showers the same nude man, as God’s grace.
• Christ is symbolized as a sacrificial lamb who holds his own cross.

The Right Side Background

• In the back left is a scene where Moses constructs a bronze serpent to cure Israelites, foreshadowing Christ’s healing power.
• God punishes Israelites who complain that the promised land is not what they thought it would be by sending poisonous serpents to bit people.
• In the back middle is the shepherds learning of the birth of Christ.
• Christ emerged from the tomb after three days having defeated Death and the Devil.
• The Protestant God also shows mercy and forgiveness.

The Text at the Bottom:

• In the back left is a scene where Moses constructs a bronze serpent to cure Israelites, foreshadowing Christ’s healing power.
• God punishes Israelites who complain that the promised land is not what they thought it would be by sending poisonous serpents to bit people.
• In the back middle is the shepherds learning of the birth of Christ.
• Christ emerged from the tomb after three days having defeated Death and the Devil.
• The Protestant God also shows mercy and forgiveness.

Left to right:

• Romans 1:18 (concerning judgment)
• Romans 4:15 (concerning the Devil and death)
• Matthew 11:13 (concerning Moses and prophets)
• Romans 1:17 and 3:28 (concerning humanity)
• 1 Peter 1:2 (concerning baptists)
• 1 Corinthians 15:54 (concerning Death and the lamb)

The Background Story

Cranach is called the “Painter of the Reformation”. The artist produced these woodcuts in conjunction with Martin Luther about 13 years after 95 Theses.

What was Martin Luther promoting?

• And exist for the future of Popes.
• An abolishment of Latin services
• For the Church to stop selling indulgences.
• No more confession, just faith
• An elimination of Catholic art that was used to display authority and extravagance.
• The use of Protestant art to promote educate and promote hope.
• Catholics were focused on laws and dogma, without focusing on a relationship with God.

About the Artist

Lucas Cranach, the Elder (1472-1553) originally named Lucas Müller, was born in Germany. He was a leading painter and one of the most important artists in German art during the 16^th century. He created numerous paintings, woodcuts, altar pieces, court pieces and portraits. Fascinated by the female form, he created innumerable pictures of women, from elongated female nudes, to fashionably dressed ladies, drawing from both the Bible mythology.

The artist never signed his full name to his works. In fact, the early pieces, before 1504 , did not contain his name at all.  From 1504 to 1506, he entwined his initials “LC”. Then, up until 1509, he signed works with his initials separated. Leading up to 1914, he added three initial and a winged serpent, which was he coat of arms. In 1515, he dropped his initial altogether and just used the coat of arms. This later method was also used by his son, artists Lucas the Younger.

 

(3) 82. Il Gesù

Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta. Italian. 16th century. façade: 1568-1584 CE. Southern (Italian) Baroque.

Il Gesù by Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta, stands in Rome, Italy. Numerous materials were used for construction and décor including brick, marble, stucco, and fresco.

An older building was first constructed. Then, between 1568-1584  the façade was added and the inside renovated. This was the first true Baroque façade, and it introduced the style into architecture as Baroque classicism. Vignola developed the overall design, while della Porta constructed the vault, dome, and apse.

Il Gesù is a Jesuit church. “Gesu” simply means Jesus in Italian. HIS on front in crest is Christ’s name.

The Façade

The Façade is divided into two floors. On the lower level there are six Corinthian columns. Five are pilasters, with one engaged column by the door. The entablature, or horizontal moldings supported by column, has inscriptions.

The three doors push out toward the viewer. This allows also for the façade to move towards us and away from us. Main door stands under curvilinear tympanum and the side doors are under triangular tympanums.

The upper level contains an ornamental balustrade or railing supported by balusters. It is joined by two volutes and creates a curling diagonal that links top floor to bottom floor. This level is not as wide as the bottom floor.

Floor Plan

The visitor is immediately projected into the body of the church, that is a simple basilica plan with semi-circular nave. There are no side aisles, no radiating chapels, and no transept.  Chapels run along the side, but you cannot walk through these. Aisles were removed to allow space for traffic. This provides worshippers with a wide uncluttered space, unified under the ceiling.

The altar is the focus. The transept does not extend beyond the nave. There is a semicircular apse, with stairs that spill out.

Function

Il Gesù was the Mother church of the Jesuit order. It was constructed after the death of St. Ignatius Loyola, founder of Jesuit order. The site was chosen because he once prayed here before the image of the Holy Virgin. This image is inside the church and is site-specific.

The patron was Cardinal Alexander Farnese, an enormously rich, powerful, art-loving cardinal. Farnese was the grandson of Pope Paul III, who had authorized the founding of the Jesuits.

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Interior)

What makes this Baroque?

The interior has movement, vivid color, energy, and drama. It illustrates light versus dark. Art moves into all the spaces, drawing the viewer in.

The dark corners have been eliminated and the sculptures have been added over time.

The  classicizing elements inside fluted pilasters, columns, barrel vaulted arches and a barrel-vaulted ceiling. These are all things we expect from the Renaissance, but here they are made with ochre marble and jasper stone. These colors add flair.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Triumph of the Name of Jesus by Giovanni Battista Gaulli)

This is a hugely explosive fresco. This ceiling embodies drama, energy, and movement.

It travels from the earthly to the heavenly and physical. Then to the spiritual.

The light appears to have broken the ceiling open.  The figures are zooming up toward it with great speed. These are the Catholics entering heaven.  In the center of the sunburst was the name of Jesus (HIS) with a cross.

Figures who ignore this light are the rejected. The group are in darkened shades, being pushed out on the bottom.

The theme here is triumphalism. Protestantism at this point in history is over 100 years old. It is not going away, but Catholicism is true.

Artistic Terms

Di sotto in sù means “from the bottom up”. In this ceiling painting there is  space that moves vertically as if it is hovering above the viewers vs quaddro riportato in the Sistine Chapel.

Trompe l’oeil is used in the architecture and many “stone” figures are painted.

The Story Behind the Church

Europe was suffering great losses from Protestantism and the Catholic Church believed this was a War for Souls.  Church responded with the Counter Reformation.

The Council of Trent met 25 times between 1545 and 1563. They outlawed simony, or the buying of church positions. The same was done to pluralism or holding more than one church office. They encouraged religious orders to promote conversion and used art to inspire the faithful.

It was agreed that art should be straightforward,  but not necessarily simple. The works needed to have clear messages, as well as amaze the viewer. The design of the church was simplified, so side aisles and narthexes disappeared.

The Church decided to use its great wealth as a sign of its success and God’s grace. Others saw this as a sign of corruption. Counter Reformation churches became more ostentatious and more expensive to build. The idea was to incite religious passion.

About St. Ignatius Loyola

 St. Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuit order to put a stop to the spread of Protestantism. He  also founded colleges for religious teachings. This spread Catholicism through conversion and monastic order.

(3) 83. Hunters in the Snow.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Dutch. 1565 CE. 16^th century. Northern Renaissance.

Learning Objects: 16^th century. Northern genre scene

Themes:

Man vs. nature
Landscape
Genre

Museum: Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna, Austria

This work entitled Hunters in the Snow, by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, is a painting using oil on wood and measuring, 3 feet 10 inches by 5 feet 4 inches.

In true Northern European tradition, the landscape has a high horizon. This enables the viewer to see more of it. To balance this, the figures also must appear smaller.  A strong diagonal line, leads the viewer into the painting.

The figures in the foreground are not identifiable. Nor are the figures a short distance behind them, to the left. We do not see faces. The figures in the background are without real form.

Observing the Details

This Genre scene depicts the transformation and importance of the landscape. It is given meaning by daily routines and activities of people who inhabit it. Humans, depending on any given day can find both joy and difficulty in the landscape. It is typical of Netherlandish painting to put in many small narratives and details.

In Hunters in the Snow, the main subject, the hunters, are trudging through the snow looking for food. We can imagine they are cold and stressed, yet still trying to make sure the hunt is successful. The women are making a fire.

Down below, deep in the background, people oblivious to what is going on above are enjoying a day on skating on frozen ponds. All these things are happening in the beauty of the landscape.

Function

This work was one of a series created for Nicles Jonghelink, an Antwerp banker, merchant, and art collector. He had asked Bruegel for six paintings that captured the labors of the months.

• Deep Winter
• Early Spring
• Late Spring (missing)
• Early Summer
• Late Summer
• Fall

Art historians think the artworks may have been commissioned for the purpose of nostalgia. The paintings could depict that humankind is of little importance. The seasons change and people are at the mercy of God and nature. Or the message could be that life is difficult but still enjoyable.

A Historical Backgrounder

Hunters in the Snow was the first artwork in the in history of Western painting that brought landscape paintings to a larger scale.

Dutch genre scenes showed normalcy and tradition even in times of great change and the spread of Protestantism. This combined with natural forces known as Little Ice Age from 1550-1700.

 Short Artist Biography:

Pieter Bruegal the Elder (1525-1569) was the most important member of the Netherlandish family of artists. He was known for bringing a human quality to his works. Many of his works focus on the lives of common Flemish people, with village settings and an eye for detail.

Born in Breda, he eventually settled in Antwerp. There he studied a masters of painting at Guild of St. Luke. He started his career making prints and engravings. Ultimately, his landscaped were widely commissioned.

(3) 88. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane.

Francesco Borromini. Italian. 1638-1646 CE. Southern (Italian) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century Southern Baroque Church

Themes:

Place of worship
Religion
Architecture
Propaganda
Light

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, is a stone and stucco church in Rome, Italy, designed by architect Francesco Borromini. This example of Baroque classicism sits on an unusually small, oddly shaped location.

The building creates a sense of movement, with alternating convex and concave patterns and undulating surfaces. This gives a sense of push and pull. The façade is higher than the rest of the building.

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Interior)

Borromini based his interior on the theory that science, mathematics and nature are inseparable. This is how God created harmony in the world.

The floor plan is based on two triangles , that share one side. These form a diamond. A circle fits inside each triangle. The circles together form an oval.

The oval-shape is repeated in the dome overhead and a lantern lets light on.  The dome is lightened with coffers that are hexagon and octagon shaped.  There is a sophistication of repeating geometric shapes. Triangles are represented throughout the church.

The eye is drawn in by great white columns. The interior side chapels merge into central space.  The walls are treated as sculptural elements that bulge and curve. Decorative natural elements include carved rosettes.

Borromini does not use color like Bernini. Keeping the church white, means drama and beauty come from the intricacy of the stone cutting and the curving of the stone. Borromini was a stone cutter and cut many of these stones himself.

Function

Borromi was commissioned by a group called the Trinitarians, who promoted the devotion to the Trinity. Since the group did not have a lot of money, the architect offered to do the commission for free if he had full creative rights.

The Background Story

The name of this Catholic Church means Saint Charles of the Four Fountains. The square in Rome it was built on contains four fountains. It is known as a church based on perfect geometry.

To counter Reformation, art was intended to awe the viewer and depict the harmony of God.  Borromini achieves this through mathematical perfection.

About the Architect

 Francesco Borromini was an architect who helped to define Baroque style in the 17^th century. This new style was a reaction to the 16^th century of Renaissance, which represented linear form in a very structured geometric way. Borromini took these geometric forms oval, squares and rectangles and choose to overlap the shapes. He also took classical elements from Greek and Roman architecture and molded them into new forms.

Borromini was eccentric, brooding, quiet, and famous. He was a contemporary and rival to  Gian Lorenzo Bernini and never was quite as well known.

(3) 89. Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Italian. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel). 1647-1652 CE. Southern (Italian) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century Southern (Italian) sculpture

Themes:

 Visions
Sexuality
Light
Religion
Propaganda
Human and divine
Status

Ecstasy of St. Teresa is a marble sculpture created by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Made for the Cornoro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, in Rome, Italy, the church’s exterior is based on Il Gesù.

The work is Baroque classicism. The characteristics include multi-media, drama, illusionistic, gilding, involvement of the viewer, peak moment of the narrative and diagonals.

A broken pediment opens to reveal the sculptural image. It is presented theatrically. Rays of light are in a hidden window behind pediment. Natural light is redirected. Rays of God’s light symbolically illuminate the scene. St. Teresa is of the earth wearing thick drapery. The angel is of the heavens wearing light drapery.

The Use of Marble

• Marble reveals texture.
• Skin is high gloss.
• Feathers of the angel are rougher.
• Drapery is animated and thick.
• Clouds are roughly cut.
• Body writhes under heavy cloth
• Bodies are graceful.
• Contrast of gold/cream, rough/smooth, straight/curved.
• Marble has a weightless quality.

Function

Bernini was commissioned by the Cornaro family to create this work for the private family chapel. It is a symbol of the status and piety of the family. Ecstasy of St. Teresa honors Teresa of Avila, and by extension, God

The goal of Baroque is to involve the viewer and inspire faith in the miraculous. Scenes of the divine and humans interacting were extremely popular.

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Theater boxes)

Members of the Cornaro family sat in theater boxes looking on and commenting as though they are part of an audience for this show.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Ecstasy of St. Teresa)

Bernini’s sculptural interpretation uses Saint Teresa’s diary, in which she tells of her visions of God.  It involved an angel descending with a golden spear and plunging it into her. The artist uses an arrow instead.

Here is an excerpt from her diary:

“Besides me, on the left, appeared an angel in bodily form. He was not tall but short, and very beautiful; his face was so aflame that he appeared to be one of the highest ranks of angels who are all on fire. In his hands, I saw a great golden spear and at the iron tip, there appeared to be a point of fire. This he plunged into my heart several times so that it penetrated me to my entrails. When he pulled it out, I felt that he took me with it, and left me utterly consumed by the great love of God.

 The pain was so severe that it made me utter several moans. The sweetness caused by this intense pain was so extreme that I did not possibly wish it to cease, nor was my soul content with anything but God. This was not a physical but a spiritual pain, though my body had some share in it – even a considerable share.”

The way she wrote it makes the spiritual and physical sound the same.

Bernini selects the most dramatic moment of the story. Not before the angel plunges the arrow into her, nor afterwards. Her pose suggests physical exhaustion, collapse but also ecstasy and pleasure. Notice how the arrow is plunged into her public area.

She craved God, which in Bernini’s image, means she craves penetration. Sexual symbolism to represent a spiritual experience. He uses human experience as a symbol of a vision of God to make it relatable.

Context

 Santa Maria della Vittoria was originally dedicated to St. Paul, but was rededicated to Virgin Mary, in gratitude for a military victory, in Bohemia, in 1620.  The head of Cornaro family, Federico Cornaro, was cardinal in Venice, with important ties to Rome.

Cornaros were patrons of Barefoot Carmelites, the order of nuns that Teresa belonged to. She had no chapel dedicated to her yet,  despite being a prominent nun.

The Story of Teresa Avila

Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) was a Spanish nun of the Barefoot Carmelites. She had recently been canonized or made a saint in 1622.

She lived in a Carmelite convent. While there, she  wrote her accounts of viewing angels down. She also recorded her experience with levitations. Her diary was a best seller in 17^th century Rome.

Direct Contact with God

The Catholic Reformation was all about pomp, extravagance, and drama, to grab the faithful and inspire piety in them. They were criticized by the Protestants, saying that Catholicism does not give the follower direct contact with God.

Catholics began to promote stories that showed Catholics having these direct connections with the divine.

About Bernini

Gian Lorenzo Bernini was a sculptor, architect, painter, playwright, and stage designer, during the Baroque era.  His father, Pietro, trained him, with an influence toward Mannerist sculpture, as well as Hellenistic works.

The younger Bernini was employed on huge projects in Rome, while also in demand across Europe. He was even invited to France by King Louis XIV.

(3) 91. Las Meninas.

Diego Velázquez. Spanish. 1656 CE. Southern (Spanish) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th Century.  Southern Baroque (Spanish) painting

Themes:

Status
Family portrait
Rulers

Museum: Prado in Madrid

This work entitled, Las Meninas, is 10 feet and 5 inches by 9 feet by 1 inch oil on canvas painting by Diego Velázquez. Here we find a new technique called impasto. This method uses a thick and very visible application of paint, using brushstrokes described as gestural. The effect is very painterly.

 The contrast between light and dark is shown here in a technique known as tenebrism. It was popularized by Caravaggio. Tenebrism is derived from the Italian word ‘tenebroso’ which means darkened and obscuring. Certain parts of paintings, such as faces, and hands are illuminated by highlights which are contrasted by a mainly dark setting.

The People in the Portrait

This is a group portrait of the artist in his studio at work. This genre scene is highly informal. It uses both normal poses and intimate glances to achieve this effect.

Velázquez paints himself stepping back from his canvas to look straight at the viewer. He wears the cross of the Royal Order of Santiago, elevating him to knighthood.  This illustrates his status both as an artist and in the community.

Meanwhile, the Infanta Margarita of Spain, is with her meninas, or maids and attendants. The infanta has just noticed the viewer, while one maid begins to curtsy.

In the painting there is also a dwarf, which were fashionable to have by royalty, along with a dog. In the middle is a nurse or bodyguard. While in the background is Jose Nieto, the head of the queen’s tapestries.

King Philip IV and his Queen appear in the mirror. The viewer know it is a mirror because it is reflective. The canvases and tapestries hanging around the room do not reflect light. Look closely. The angle of the canvas and the angle of the mirror do not match up.

Do you see the painting of King Philip IV and Queen on the back wall of the room?

Made for the King’s Viewing Pleasure

This was a painting created for King Philip IV’s private study. He wanted a portrait of his daughter so that he could look up and see her everyday. The group painting makes it similar to a family photograph for personal enjoyment. Royalty would never be portrayed this way in public paintings.

A Bit of History

The king was the last great Spanish Hapsburg king.  Spain’s status as an international power was in decline with inflation, downward political power, and a loss of colonies.

An alliance was created with the Catholic Church in attempt to retain power.  Spain was deeply Catholic since the Catholic fanaticism from Isabella and Ferdinand. Art from this time is almost always religious in nature or portraiture.

About the Artist

Diego Velázquez (1599-1660) was born in Seville, Spain. Showing early artistic talents, he was already apprenticed, by the age of 11, to Francisco Pacheco, the city’s most significant artist and art theorist. There he learned drawing, painting, still life and portraiture.

Velázquez was greatly influenced by Caravaggio.

Once he finished his apprenticeship, in 1617, he married Pacheco’s daughter, and set up his own studio.

In 1623, Velázquez was asked to paint a portrait of the young King Philip IV. Soon after, he was appointed one of the court painters, enabling him to move his family to Madrid.

Throughout the years, he became remarkably close to the royal family, taking on greater responsibility within the household. By 1658, he was honored by being knighted.

(3) 92. Woman Holding a Balance

Johannes Vermeer. Dutch. 1664 CE. Northern (Dutch) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century. Northern Baroque (Dutch) genre scene

Themes:

Genre
Status
Private
Technology
Light
Didactic
Religion
Iconography
Domestic

Museum: National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

In Woman Holding a Balance, an oil on canvass, measuring 1 foot 5 inches by 1 foot 3 inches, painted by Johannes Vermeer. The Northern characteristics in this work include:

• Use of iconography
• Incredible detail
• Small-scale works
• Interior scenes
• Genre scenes

There is a sense of geometric and mathematical stability. The room uses 1-point perspective. Everything radiates outward from the corner of the painting behind the woman’s hand.  Her hand creates a pyramid that extends downward to the tabletop.

The Master of Light

Vermeer was known as the “master of light”. The light illuminates the front of the woman’s  body as it spread across the room.  The subtle use of color softens the light, especially blue and yellow.

Camera Obscura

The painting does not resolve clearly or come into focus until you reach the subject and her hand.  This has led historians to wonder if he was using a camera obscura. The word means “dark chamber”.

This was an ancestor to the photographic camera. Camera obscura took 3-D works and transformed them into 2D. It requires a viewing lens and viewing screen in a box.

The light has a reflective quality, with distortion. Things are not in focus. A blue tinge  was common from the glass and refraction of light. There is no historical evidence to show that Vermeer owned one, but the visual evidence seems uncanny.

Function of the Work

The painting urges us to conduct our lives with temperance and moderation lest we be judged. This is known as a vanitas, or vanity painting. It is didactic in that it warns us of moral depravity, vanity, and selfishness.

The theme is judging or weighing. The woman is accessing her goods, when it is her own soul that will be weighed or judged. It is actions that matter, not possessions. It urges for a relationship between wealth and spirituality, that encourages a balance between the two.

The Dutch were Protestant and therefore did not shun any display of wealth the way Catholics did, according to Catholic dogma.  However, many were concerned that Dutch displays of wealth were becoming too lavish. People were more concerned with worldly possessions than spirituality.

One term coined by art historian Simon Schama for this idea: the embarrassment of riches.

The Content of the Work

Woman Holding a Balance is an extremely quiet genre scene. This is what Vermeer is known for. Women engaged in ordinary domestic activities, with tranquil and luminous interior scenes were frequent in his work.

The woman is pregnant, which is why art historians believe the model to be the artist’s wife Catherina Vermeer. The surroundings are very opulent. She is wearing exceptionally fine clothing, and a typical linen cap that women wore, while at home.

The woman holds in her right hand a balance with nothing on either side yet. The scale is at equilibrium. This is suggestive of her inner state of mind. She seems to be about to weigh the valuables in front of her — blue cloth, open boxes, two strands of pearls and a gold chain.

A mirror is across from her on the wall. Mirrors were a common type of iconography in Dutch Baroque art. They were meant to show vanity, futility, human excess, and concern for the worldly instead of the spiritual. Perhaps this is a vanitas: reminder of man’s mortality.

Last Judgment Painting

Behind the woman hangs a painting of Christ, who judges over all souls. It illustrates the blessed souls at the bottom left and the damned on the right.

The woman’s head is in a position that it divides the two. This starts the viewer questioning. Which side will she end up on? In the moment, the woman does not seem to notice the lesson or the painting.

Art historians have questioned if this painting, within a painting, really exists, or if it came from Vermeer’s imagination. It this painting is real it has never been found.

Historical Background

At this period of time, the Dutch were now Protestant. Religious art was forbidden and there was no central church to commission it.  Instead, a prosperous middle class of merchants collected art and  commissioned it.

During the Dutch Golden Age of the 17^th century,  trade and exploration of the New World and Southeast Asia led to Dutch dominance, especially in the spice trade. This created a tremendous wealth.

There was great anxiety over this wealth. It needed to be used appropriately. Art was displayed in home, so they needed small, intimate works. There was a taste for art about classical mythology, as well as still lifes, landscapes, genre scenes, and portraits.

About Vermeer

Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer (1632-1676) created 34 works in his lifetime. Like other Golden Age artists, he painted subjects about everyday life.

The Girl with a Pearl Earring is his most iconic work. In fact, Hollywood made it into a movie! Other paintings include View from Delft and Girl with a Red Hat.

(3) 96. Fruit and Insects.

Rachel Ruysch. Dutch. 1711 CE. Late Baroque.

Learning Objective: Late Baroque (Dutch) still life

Themes:

Still life
Nature
Science
Status
Religion
Iconography

Museum: Uffizi, Florence, Italy

This painting entitled Fruits and Insects by Rachel Ruysch is a small oil on wood artwork, measuring just 1 foot 4 by 2 feet.  Still lifes were valued for their extreme realism.

This work shows a profusion of scientifically accurate floral details. Look closely at the petals, stems, leaves. Tips are crinkled and brittle, with an emphasis of implied texture in the work.

Ruysch was known for her lively, informal arrangements. Most artists made symmetrical and formal compositions. Also, notice her use of the treatment of light she employs using tenebrism:

Scenes, like this one, were a collective observation of many plants and fruit, imaginatively compiled together to create a full composition. Historians know this because many of the components displayed together in still lifes, would not have been grown in the same season.

The Harvest Scene

The scene from Fruit and Insects is a harvest.  It features corn, squash, chestnuts, peaches, plum, grapes, wheat, eggs, and a butterfly. Looking at more minute details, one can also see a snail and a fly.

Christians would have seen the wheat as a reference to Eucharist, while the grapes as a symbol of alcohol. Insects play up on the fascination with science and microscopes at the time.

The Meaning Behind the Work

 Fruit and Insects was painted for Bavarian Prince Johann Wilhelm. He gave it as a gift to Cosimo de’ Medici III as a gift.

• Represents scientific interest in categorizing the natural world which was becoming popular.
• Statement of status (implication is that patron owns all of this)
• New affluent middle class desired new kinds of subjects.
• They wanted art genres that would reflect their success with genre scenes, still lifes, portraits or landscapes.
• No monarchy or Catholic Church in the Netherlands to commission religious or political art
• Religious/moral message: vanitas (all of this is fleeting)
• A reminder that relationship with God is the most important thing of all.
• Flowers are iconographic statements of fleeting beauty and shortness of life.
• Wealthy Dutch consumers were reminded to not be too attached to their material possessions and worldly pleasures.

 Hierarchy of Genre

Still lifes were considered the lowest in the artistic world’s Hierarchy of Genre. It was the first genre students were expected to master. Artist rarely specialized in it. This was not so for female artists. This was as high as they were expected to go. Male counterparts believed they did not have the mental capacity for anything higher!

Painting was considered a hobby for women and not a profession. When women did learn how to paint they were often taught by their husbands or fathers. When they did succeed commercially, they were referred to as “lady painters.”

Career and Family

Ruysch was enormously successful in a 60-year career, producing over 250 paintings. For eight of those years, she was a court painter to the Bavarian court for eight years.

She also raised 10 children!

Ruysch grew up in Amsterdam, in a family of Dutch artists and scientist. Her father was a prominent scientist and specialized in botany. He possessed a collection of rare specimens, which she helped him catalogue and record.

The Dutch Golden Age, in the 17^th century, fueled an interest in exotic plants and flowers including “Tulip Mania”. Her paintings filled with observations and realistic replications were extremely popular.  And her works sold for double that which Rembrandt’s did at the time!

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Early European and Colonial American Art

200- 1750

Topic 3.2 Interactions Within and Across Cultures in Early European and Colonial American Art