Early European and Colonial Americas 3.4

Early European and Colonial Americas

200- 1750

Topic 3.4

Purpose and Audience  in Early European and   Colonial American Art

Corporate and individual patronage informed the production, content, form, and display of art—from panel painting, altarpieces, sculpture, and print to myriad decorative arts, such as metalwork and textiles. Displayed in churches, chapels, convents, palaces, and civic buildings, the arts performed various functions (e.g., propagandistic, commemorative, didactic, devotional, ritual, recreational, and decorative).

Surviving architecture is primarily religious in function although though domestic architecture survives from the late Middle Ages. The ground plans and elevations of religious structures accommodated worship and incorporated symbolic  numbers, shapes, and ornament.

Audiences’ periodic rejections of figural imagery on religious structures or objects on theological grounds  were common to all three major medieval religions. These artworks could facilitate a connection with the  divine through their iconography (icons) or contents (reliquaries).

The emergence of academies redefined art training and  the production and identity of the artist by introducing more structured, theoretical curricula in centralized educational institutions.

(3) 54. Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George.

Byzantine. 6th or early 7th century CE. Byzantine.

Learning Objective: Byzantine icon

Themes:

Icon
Biblical
Religion
Family
Ideal woman
Devotional object
cross-cultural

Museum: St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai, Egypt

This icon painting,  measuring  2 feet 3 inches by 1 foot 7 inches, Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George uses encaustic on wood. Encaustic is a pigment mixed with wax.  The work is formal and both religious and political in nature.

As is the norm in Byzantine icons, the figures are highly contoured, and the faces are modeled with light and shadow to show roundness. The figures are frontal and almost rigid, yet the angels do turn their heads. The two figures in the front are floating and do not support their weight.

The space is shallow, and background details are vague. There is however some spatial recession with shadows on the throne.

What is an Icon?

Icon is the Greek word for image. An icon painting is for personal devotion and worship. Icons were believed to be the religious figures depicted. The steady gaze of the images encouraged a personal connection for the worshipper.

The purpose is not to be visually accurate, but rather to convey religious meaning and facilitate a religious experience.

The Figures in the Icon Painting

The Virgin (Theotokos) is the Greek title for mother of God. She is embodiment of support to Christ. Her body literally carried him, and she supports him now. Her deep blue outfit, with hood pulled over head is very typical of Byzantine art.

Saints Theodore on the left and George, on the right.  They are soldier/warrior saints and popular because they defended faith. Two angels gaze upward to the hand of God emerging from shaft of light.

Christ appears as an old man in a baby’s body to indicate he contained infinite wisdom.

Background History

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between  Saints Theodore and George  was discovered at St. Catherine’s Monastery in Mount Sinai in Egypt, built during reign of Justinian in Byzantine Empire. This is the place where God appeared to Moses. This is the oldest continuously used Christian monastery.

This work is based on Late Egyptian funerary portraiture during the Roman period.  Byzantines occupied Roman Egypt, which was affected by Pompeiian wall paintings.

Iconoclastic Controversy

During the 8^th and 9^th centuries Christians regard the devotion to icons as idolatry. This simply meant people were worshipping the objects, rather than worshipping to them or using them to guide their thoughts.

Icons became indispensable, personal mediums for spirituality and miracles were often ascribed to them. Many were fearful this was a relapse to pagan idolatry. As a direct result icons were destroyed en masse. Today, very few survive. It is rare to find them.

 

(3) 58. Church of Sainte-Foy

Romanesque Europe. Stone. 1050-1130 CE. Conques, France. Romanesque.

Learning Objective: Romanesque church

Themes:

Place of worship
Afterlife
Reliquary
Pilgrimage
Religion
Biblical
Architecture
Good/evil
Human/divine
Entryways

The stone church was built so that pilgrims could easily journey through.  They approached the exterior and at portal and view the tympanum. Entering the door under the right-hand of the  tympanum , looking toward the nave, they would walk down the side aisles. Next, they would move along the transept, and into the radiating chapels that rotate around the back of the altar in the apsidal end of the church.

At the radiating chapels, pilgrims would visit the different relics. Then, moving along the transept, they would walk down the side aisles, exiting under the left-hand side of the tympanum.

New Descriptive Terms:   

• Square Schematism: dimensions of a church when they are based on the crossing square’s size.

• Bay: dimensions of a church in the nave from one pier to the next.

• Crossing Square: where the nave crosses the transept.

• Transept: the horizontal piece that crosses the nave.

Plan of Basilica and Transept

Basilicas can accommodate lots of people and they have a central focus. Church of Sainte-Foy  needed to develop a space that could accommodate both church services and pilgrims visiting without disruption to church goers.

A transept was the solution. It enabled pilgrims to move in an out of the church by moving them around the service and behind the alter.

The bonus of this floor plan is that it resembles a cross.

Romanesque Characteristics

Church of Sainte-Foy has taller arches. To keep these arches and walls upright, the walls had to be made very thick to pinch the arch upwards. To keep the structures of the wall intact, windows were eliminated. The walls could not bear a clerestory.

From the nave view there is a barrel vault with transept arches, and a nave arcade. Notice the bays.

The exterior decoration is minimal. The westwork façade has two bell towers.

The Function of Church of Sainte-Foy

Church of Sainte-Foy functioned to host pilgrims on their journey to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. It worked to bless the visitors and help them be saved on Judgement Day. Christians were inspired to behave in a holy manner and to show their piety.

Who was Sainte-Foy?

Sainte Foy (English: Saint Faith) was born in the French/Roman 2^nd century city of Agen. She became a martyr when she was killed by the Romans by refusing to worship pagan gods. She was only 12 years old.

Her skull became the relic that pilgrims wanted to visit. It was believed that it cured blindness.

SUB-IMAGE 1: Reliquary of Sainte Foy

Reliquary of Sainte Foy is a seated sculpture of Sainte Foy that is just over 3 feet tall. The wooden core is gilded with gold, and studded with gems (amethyst, crystal, emeralds, garnets, jade, onyx, opal, pearls, rubies, sapphires, topaz). Many off these gems were offerings made at the church.

The head of the Reliquary was originally from a Roman statue (spoila). Inside rests Sainte Foy’s skull. The head is made up a different gold from the body. The crown and head were added during the 11^th century.

History of the Skull

The skull was originally at a monastery in Agen but monks from Conques stole it to attract wealth and visitors.

It is first mentioned in written history in 1010 by Bernard of Angers. He worried it would inspire Idolatry because of it was so expensive and precious.

SUB-IMAGE 2: Tympanum

Tympanum is semicircular area for decoration directly over the door of a church. Jamb and jamb figures are side posts of doorways or figures carved on columns.   There are 124 figures here.

Tympanum decoration helped viewers understand the theme of the building. It was carved in relief  and was once painted to help viewers read it.  This scene was to help remind viewers of the joys of heaven and the torments of hell.

On the left side or Christ’s right side is the door to Heaven.  This is the side that pilgrims would EXIT under. Immediately on Christ’s right are Mary, Peter, the founder of the monastery and other saints. The hand of God points to St. Foy who bows to God.

At the bottom left is the House of Paradise (arcade with pediment), which holds the saved. Abraham sits crowned in the middle.

In the center sits Christ enthroned as judge. The entire figure is encircled by mandorla or frame. He sits with his right hand pointing upwards on the side of the saved.  His left-hand gestures down to the damned who will be in hell.

Below this is the Archangel Michael and the Devil, weighing souls. Underneath that is the door to Heaven and Hell with a monster guarding Hell. To the right side or Christ’s left side is Hell. This is the side that pilgrims enter under. This is a reminder that everyone who enters is a sinner.

On the bottom right is the Devil crowned and enthroned, who is mocking Christ.  To the devil’s left is a hanged man. This represents Judas who hanged himself after betraying Christ. The damned encircle him, each represents a specific sin. The dead rise from their tombs.

Hell is chaotic, disorderly, vastly different from the side of Heaven. The lintel read,  “O Sinners, change your morals before you might face a cruel judgment.”

Historical Reference

The town of Conques became an important stop on the route to Santiago de Compostela, in Northern Spain. This was the final destination of all pilgrims because it contains the relic of St. James.

Relics as Religious Objects

Relics are objects of religious significance. Some Christian examples directly associated with Christ’s life include, the manger, the cross and Mary’s clothing. Then, there are physical remains of saints such as teeth, feet, or skulls. Additionally, anything the saint may have touched was also considered a relic, like clothing or a bible.

It was believed that relics induced miracles. They could cure sickness, stop famine or plagues. This created a commerce market for relics. Forgeries abounded. So many people were selling pieces of the True Cross, that John Calvin famously remarked that you could build a ship with them.

Reliquaries developed as ways to protect and display relics. Since relics were valuable , they were enshrined in containers that were decorated with precious metals and precious and semi precious stones.

Churches were built along major pilgrimage roads to welcome pilgrims and show them relics—both real and forged. Relics became a source of income for the church, as people made offerings. It also helped support the town in was the church was in with tourism trade.

Today, every October, there is still a festival in Conques and the region of Southern France that celebrates Sainte Foy.

(3) 61. Bible Moralisée

Gothic Europe. 1225-1245 CE. Gothic.

Learning Objective: Gothic illuminated manuscript

Themes:

Text and image
Biblical
Rulers
Status
Good vs evil
Male-female relationships
Materials with significance

Museum: Morgan Library and Museum, New York City

The Bible Moralisée is an illuminated manuscript, made using ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum.  Vellum is a fine paper made from the skin of calves. While Tempera is pigment mixed with egg yolk.

The work is typically Gothic in style, with drawing that look almost like stained glass windows. There are strong black outlines, filled with bright colours. The figures are not modeled, and appear very thin, without any muscularity.

Purpose of Bible Moralisée

This expensive work was created for French royalty. It illustrates every sentence in the bible with text and additional commentary. This suggests comparisons between people and events in the Biblical world with the medieval world

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France)

At the top left is Blanche of Castile, who is veiled in a white widow’s wimple. The

traditional medieval open crown sits on top. This crown is decorated with the fleur-de-lys, a stylized iris that is the French royal flower.

Both pose and expression indicate that she is gesturing and speaking to the young man, her son, Louis IX. This pose was familiar to many as that of the Virgin Mary and Christ, who were often enthroned side by side.

At the top right is a young and still beardless Louis IX. He glances at his mother. In his hand, he holds a sceptre topped with a fleur-de-lys and a small golden ball. The ball is in reference to coronation, and Christ’s dominion over the world.

The older man in the bottom left is a monk. He tilts his head forward and points at the scribe in the bottom right. The scribe appears to be taking dictation from the monk.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (Scenes from the Apocalypse)

NOTE: This is from a different Bible Moralisée. It is from the Paris-Oxford-London Bible Moralisée, which is split between these three cities*

Here, lavishly illustrated passages from the Old and New Testaments were paired with historical and contemporary scenes to convey a moral message. Each page has 8 circular shaped medallions arranged in the two columns. Two columns of work are read from the top left to bottom left, then from top right to bottom right.

The two top medallions illustrate the Biblical. The two below shows the equivalent for the time.  There are a total of 4887 medallions.

This page tells the story of St. John the Divine’s vision, where an angel takes him on a tour of heaven and shows him everything that will happen until the end of time. There will be an ongoing battle between God and evil, and ultimately God will win.

Medallion A

Revelation 14:19  “And the angel thrust in his sharp sickle into the earth, and gathered the vineyard of the earth, and cast it into the great press of the wrath of God.”

A figure on the right harvests grapes from the vines on the right. Christ, with his cruciform,  cross-shaped halo, pours the grapes from the basket on his back into the winepress. God and his angels bless the scene from above.

The commentary text says that the great winepress signifies hell. There are demons herding the damned into a hellmouth . Among the damned is a corrupt bishop, identified by his hat, or mitre, and a corrupt king,

Medallion B

Revelation 15:1 “And I saw another sign in heaven, great and wonderful: seven angels having the seven last plagues. For in them is filled up the wrath of God.”

The illustration shows Christ is on the left with seven angels on the right.

The commentary text interprets the seven angels as faithful preachers who teach God’s people. The illustrations show a priest on the left teaching a group of men. Two Jewish men identified with conical hats, turn their body away from the priest.  This was aimed to convince Christian readers that Jews were once God’s people, but medieval Jews no longer were.

The Apocalypse Revelations

Apocalypse is last book of the Christian bible, often called Revelations. It details evil being destroyed by God, with the righteous being raised. It also describes the end times.

People in the 13^th century and High Middle Ages believed that the end times had come. War. Plagues. Violence. As such, the book of revelations became extremely popular.

Historical Context

Blanche of Castile was the Queen of France and married to Louis VIII. The couple gave birth to Louis IX.  When Louis VIII died from dysentery in 1226, she ruled as regent because Louis IX was just 12 years old. As a woman in power, she was accused on adultery and even murder.

Louis IX grew up to lead the 7^th and 8^th crusades. In 1270, he and was canonized as a saint by Pope Boniface VIII. He was the only French king ever to be sainted.

(3) 62.  Röttgen Pietà

Late Medieval Europe (German). 1300–1325 CE.  14^th century. Late Gothic/International Gothic.

Learning Objective: Late Gothic sculpture

Themes:

Biblical
Death
Religion
Devotional object
Stylized bodies
Male/female relationships

Museum: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, Germany

Röttgen Pietà is a small painted wood sculpture measuring 34 inches tall. It retains its original paint,  with browns, reds, and golds.

The  dark colors emphasize the physicality of the body, which is depicted as both limp, but rigid in pain. This late Gothic style is more able to capture this feeling, while retaining the features of delicate elongation from Early Gothic. Notice the Crown of Thorns, wiry body and crumpled.

Creating an Emotional Response

The goal of late Gothic sculpture was to create an emotional response in the viewer. Churchgoers were confronted with agony, death, and sorrow. This was different from the jubilant images of Christ that they normally saw in early Gothic art.

Andachtsbild (end-ACHT-speeld) is the German word for devotional image. It puts human pain in perspective and reminds us of Christ’s sacrifice and Mary’s great suffering. Religious figures are therefore humanized.

A Closer Look at Röttgen Pietà

The Virgin cradles Christ after he has been removed from the cross. Christ is emaciated, through living an ascetic life of deprivation to achieve greater spirituality. He is drained of blood and stiff in rigor mortis.

The horror of the Crucifixion is evident. Stigmata is visible on his hands and feet. The Crown of Thorns has caused his face to bleed. Mary’s face is twisted in anger, confusion,  and anguish, as tears roll down her face.

A New Christ

The is an early, medieval representations of Christ that is focused on his divinity. Prior to this Christ was depicted on the cross but did not suffer. Eventually, by the late middle ages or late Gothic era, this new focus on a suffering Christ emerged.

Art Reflecting Life

Suffering was part of the 14^th century. It was a difficult time with:

• Hundred Years War
• Plague
• Famine

Artwork suddenly took on a tragic tone.  Fearful churchgoers sought comfort and reassurance in the idea that Christ and Mary understood their suffering and the woes of humankind. Scenes of the Pieta and Mary’s suffering became very common.

This led to a period of worship called Marian Devotion. Mary was seen as an accessible, warm, motherly intercessor who could advocate for humankind through Christ.

Gothic Goes International

The Late Gothic Era was so popular across Europe that it is known as International Gothic. This German work illustrates just that.

 

(3) 73. Last Supper

Leonardo da Vinci. Italian. 1494–1498 CE. 15^th century. Southern (High Renaissance).

Learning Objective:  15^th century Southern fresco secco

Themes:

Biblical
Innovation
Status
Religion
Human and divine

The Last Supper by artist Leonardo da Vinci is a fresco secco using oil and tempera and measures 15 by 29 feet. It is in the refectory at Santa Maria dell Grazie, in Milan, Italy.  This is the only Leonardo work that is in situ or cannot be removed from the site.

What is Fresco Secco?

Painting a fresco secco involves covering the wall with a double layer of wet plaster. Then it must dry before the paint is applied.  This means the paint does not absorb into the wet plaster but sits on top instead.

Leonardo was experimenting with fresco secco or dry fresco,  because traditional buon fresco requires an artist to work at an accelerated pace. Once dry, the paint changes colour and anything remixed will not match. Also, Leonardo was given to much contemplation while working and it was a slow process for him.

The Last Supper in Disrepair

Leonardo used oil and tempura mixed. The oil provided the subtle tones that were his trademark. Tempera was needed to accomplish the fresco. The two did not mix well!

The stones that the paint was applied too were porous. This wall was adjacent to the kitchen in the monastery which became humid.

Everything combined caused disrepair.

Timeline:

• Last Supper was completed on February 9^th, 1498
• By the end of 16^th century, a writer says the work is already “all but ruined”
• 1652: door cut out of fresco
• 1768: curtain hung over it to protect it, but it kept moisture in
• 1796: the space was used as armory then prison
• 1820: sections removed to be fixed, glued back on
• WWII: building is bombed, every wall falls but this one
• Today, only 42.5% of the work is original Leonardo

The Work’s Perspective

The Last Supper is based on one-point perspective, where orthogonals bring the viewer back to Christ in the center. He is the vanishing point.

Compositionally Speaking

Leonardo uses the numbers three and four to define the composition. The number three symbolizes the trinity. The number four symbolized Plato’s four virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, justice.

There are four groups of three disciples that form 12 all together. There are three windows in the back. There are four wall panels on both sides.

Other Painterly Techniques

Leonardo use chiaroscuro to show the roundness and 3D of figures. He also uses his technique of sfumato or smoke. It is a subtle way of airbrushing without creating harsh lines and adds a hazy effect.

A Lack of Halos

The figures do not have halos. These have been fully abandoned. Renaissance artists preferred the shape of the triangle, as it is the most balanced and stable.

Function of the Last Supper

This work was made for the refectory, the room where the Dominican friars, eat silently. Last Supper scenes were common scenes for refectories and appropriate for the location. Monks could contemplate the scene as they ate.

This was part of a plan to renovate this church by Ludovica Sforza, Duke of Milan. Lunettes above are painted with the Sforza court of arms to show patronage.  This conveyed the wealth, status, and piety of Ludovica Sforza and meant to be his good work.

Leonardo Da Vinci was the Sforza court painter and that is how he was given the work.

Observations

This is the moment, at the Last Supper (Passover Seder) when Christ says, as in Mark 14:18, “One of you will betray me.” His closest followers react according to their personalities with an incredible range of emotions.

Christ also says to apostles, “take, eat; this is my body”. This is the founding moment of the Eucharist, the most important Catholic moment in the service, when the bread and wine turn into Christ’s body and blood.

The identify of each disciple from left to right:

First Trio:

• Bartholomew
• James, son of Alphaeus
• Andrew

Second Trio and the most important apostles:

Judas has a bag of silver in his right hand. This is payment for betraying Christ to Romans.  He is cast in shadow to show his character. Bad manners betray him, with elbows on the table and knocking over salt. There was an expression at the time “to betray salt”, which meant to betray your master because masters were known to pay workers in salt, an expensive spice.

Judas backs away from Christ. He turns his neck to reveal it, symbolizing he will hang himself and he is caught. Leonardo painted him intentionally darker, so that through contrast, we will know who he is.

Peter holds a knife in his right hand, foreshadowing that he will sever the ear of a soldier, as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. At the Last Supper, Christ foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the morning.

John the Evangelist, swoons and closes his eyes. He looks very young and does not know how to process what he has been told. He might faint.

Jesus is the most important figure. He is in the center showing pride of place. The window behind him acts as a halo. He is triangular in pose, calm and stable.  He reaches towards a glass of wine, with his left hand and bread with the right. The message is that only through Christ can you reach the perfect and heavenly landscape in the back.

Third Trio

Thomas holds up a finger, foreshadows when he will doubt Christ’s wounds and feel them. Meanwhile, James the Greater has his arms in air. Part of this trio includes Philip.

Fourth Trio

• Matthew
• Jude Thaddeus
• Simon the Zealot

Context

Leonardo has presented the viewer with the  principals of humanism, rationalism, and idealism.

All disciples, including Judas, and Jesus sit on same side of table.

To humanize this work, none of the figures are given halos. This was popular during the Renaissance. Also, all unnecessary details are eliminated.  The walls, table and room decoration are simple.

All figures show emotion. Leonardo was unusual in that he chose to depict the moment right after Christ says, “One of you will betray me.”  Typically, artists showed a generic Last Supper scene.

More About Leonardo Da Vinci

Artist Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) left his mark on not only art but science. Born in the Tuscan hamlet near Vinci, he apprenticed for nine years, with Florentine Andrea del Verrachio, a sculptor, painter, and goldsmith.

Meeting people in and around the studio, Leonardo would also develop skills in mechanics, carpentry, metallurgy, architecture, drafting and chemistry. A prolific sketcher, he kept is drawings and ideas in notebooks.

Later, after setting up his own studio, he focused on religious art, plus portrait commissions. Eventually, he became the court painter to the Duke of Milan.

When the French invaded Milan, Leonardo returned to Florence. Here he accepted the commission in 1503, to paint his masterpiece, Mona Lisa, a painting of the wife of Francesco del Giocondo.

(3) 77. Isenheim Altarpiece (closed).

Matthias Grünewald. German. 1512-1516. Central 16^th century. Northern Renaissance.

Learning Objective: 16^th century. Northern altarpiece

Themes:

Biblical
Religion
Site-specific
Didactic
Stylized bodies
Human and divine
Visions

Museum: Hospital of St. Anthony, Isenheim, Germany

Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald is an oil on wood artwork, with a central panel measuring  10 feet wide. Altarpieces are made from wood, so the panels can move.

A polyptych is a multi-paneled work , with two wings, one central panel, and a predella, or base that is painted. This is essentially a box of statues covered by folding wings multi-media, with three layers. Notice the stylized bodies, and dramatic colours.

Hospital of St. Anthony

 The hospital was built by the Brothers of St. Anthony in a monastery at Isenheim.  St. Anthony was the patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases. This hospital specialized in ergotism also known as St. Anthony’s Fire.

What is Ergotism?

Ergotism is caused by eating fungus that grows in rye flour. Symptoms include skin infections, gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations. This is not surprizing as the hallucinogenic drug LSD comes from the same strain of fungus.

The disease can also attack the central nervous system. If left untreated, it can lead to death.

How this Altarpiece was Used

Isenheim Altarpiece was used during mass, in the monastic hospital of St. Anthony’s, for patients. It was positioned at the end of the room , so it was visible from bed. Not only does this work mirror the physical and emotional pain of the patients, but it also emphasizes miracles and an end to suffering.

Swinging the altarpiece open would split Christ’s body along his right shoulder. Amputations were common for ergotism sufferers.

The bright colours used on the altar piece could draw attention, even from patients in a hallucinatory state.

The Details of the Altarpiece

The altarpiece was left closed until Sundays.

One the left wing of the closed work, is St. Sebastian, martyred by being shot with arrows. The pockmarks on his skin associated him with skin diseases.

On the center panel is the Crucifixion. Mary is swooning, dressed in the same as the nuns at the monastery hospital.  She is caught by the young and beardless John the Evangelist.

Mary Magdalene appears on her knees, with hands clasped. She is pleading and looking up at Christ.

Christ is deliberately painted to look as if he suffers from ergotism. Note the body marked by pox, and  dead and decomposing flesh. Christ’s hands are writhing in agony. His arms are almost torn from their sockets, and his body has been painfully lashed.

The lamb illustrated is Christ’s embodiment as a sacrificial lamb, carrying its own cross and bleeding into a chalice.

John the Baptist is not commonly depicted at the crucifixion of Christ. Yet here he gestures towards the suffering body and holds a scroll which reads, “He must increase, but I must decrease.” Translation: put our ego second because God comes first.

On the right wing is St. Anthony Abbot, the patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases. (Pork fat was used to help heal skin, so he is often seen with a pig.)

On the  predella, or base of the altar is the Lamentation scene, with the tortured body of Christ and those trying to help.

The Second Scene

Once Sunday rolled around the altarpiece was opened for a view on the panels inside. This is the second of three views the altarpiece can create.

On the left wing is the Annunciation.  On the center panel is the Virgin and Child. Mary is surrounded by symbolism supporting who she is. There is a garden with a gate. Inside are roses. She sits holding a rosary.  Musical angels sit underneath a Gothic canopy.

The right wing shows the resurrection. Christ is wreathed in orange, red and yellow body haloes. He  rises like a fireball. Bodies of sleeping soldiers have been hurtled from the power. He goes from rags to glorious robes. His wounds do not harm him now.

The predella remains the same— the Lamentation scene.

 The Third Scene

The third position, or fully opened altar piece was only opened on special occasions. It depicts symbols of the ergotism disease. Oozing boils, withered arms, and distended stomachs are all represented.

On the left side St. Anthony is visited by St. Paul, the first hermit on the desert. The two are about to be fed by a raven in a tree. The meeting cured St. Anthony of the misperception that he was the first desert hermit. It was a lesson in humility.

The center represents three saints. St. Anthony is flanked by St. Jerome and St. Augustine. On the right, St. Anthony’s temptations in the desert includes hybrid tormenting demons.

On the predella, Christ stands amongst apostles.

In Context

Sculpted wooden altarpieces were popular in Germany before Protestantism. The Isenheim Altarpiece however is a Catholic altarpiece.  This is one of the last major Northern altarpieces. Protestantism began in 1517.

About the Artist

German born artist Matthias Grünewald, (1480 to 1528) was known for his religious works with intense color. In 1509, he became the court painter to the elector of Mainz, the archbishop Uriel von Gemmingen. Isenheim Altarpiece is considered his masterpiece.

(3) 86. Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici.

Peter Paul Rubens. Flemish artist for French patron. 1621-25 CE. Northern (Flemish) Baroque.

Learning Objective: 17^th century. Northern Baroque (Flemish) history painting cycle

Themes:

Propaganda
Male-female relationships
Deities
Politics
Power
Ideal woman
Interpretation of history
Status

Museum: Louvre, Paris, France

Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici is an oil on canvas work by Peter Paul Rubens, measuring 12 feet by 9 feet 6 inches. It is one painting from the Marie de’ Medici cycle, a group of 24 paintings.

Rubens had the help of a huge workshop. He painted the faces and hands of the King and Marie de’ Medici. He also organized the composition. The rest of the work was finished by the workshop.  This was a common practice.

The artwork is painted in the Grand Manner. This style is noted for grandiose subjects which are ennobled, such as battle scenes, images of royalty and scenes from the Classics. A low horizon line to makes figures appear larger, so they are idealized, noble and strong.

The size of the painting is befitting of history paintings, which were painted in a large manner to imbue the subject with grandeur.

French Academy Painting Debates

In the French Academy, there were great debates about how to paint, the kind of influence to use, what to prioritize, and what the process should be.

Classicists,  led by an artist named Poussin, argued that a subdued and controlled line should be the basis for compositions.

Poussinistes promoted linear rationalism.

Naturalists , led by Rubens, argued that the focus should be on intense, dramatic color, as the basis for designs. They were also called Rubenistes.

The Commission of Two Dozen Paintings

Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici is one in a series of 24 huge, historically chronological paintings allegorically retelling the life of Marie de’ Medici, Queen of France, and wife of Henry IV. This painting is number six. It shows the marriage negotiations that took place in 1600.

Marie de’ Medici commissioned these works from Rubens to commemorate the reconciliation with her son Louis XIII. The Queen had just returned to Paris after being exiled.  The works were also a celebration of her life’s triumphs.

These works were placed in her mansion, just south of the Louvre,  called Luxembourg Palace. The works convey the message of peace, prosperity, and God’s blessing. She had it all.

The Details of the Painting

Ultimately Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici was considered a history painting, though it was also a contemporary one for the time.

Henry IV gazes on her face in a portrait, held up by Hymen, the god of marriage on the right and cupid on the left. Hymen holds a flaming torch, symbolizing the intensity of love. Cupid points to Marie, encouraging Henry.

This was an arranged marriage and the two had not yet met.

Judging by the painting, he is completely smitten with her image. So enamored is he that, he has walked away from the battle in the background. He has even dropped his shield and helmet on the ground.

Meanwhile, Marie looks out at the viewer from her portrait.

The personification of France, is a woman dressed in royal blue silk, with gold fleur-de-lys, the country’s symbol. On top of her head is a light blue, plumed helmet.  She stands behind the king, touching him gently and urging him to marry her. This is what is best for France.

This is a match approved by the gods. Zeus and Hera sit above on a cloud, hands touching, even though these two do not generally get along. Yet, In the presence of love, they reconcile.  hey are surrounded by their attributes including eagles, thunderbolts, and peacocks.

Henry Solo   

Henry IV was a Protestant who converted to Catholicism upon taking the throne in 1593. He was called upon to take this role when a distant cousin and brother-in-law, Henry III died.  This coincided with French Wars of Religion between 1562-1598, a war between the French Roman Catholics and the French Hugeonots, or Protestants.

The Couple Wed and United

Henry was 50 and Marie was 27 when they married by proxy in 1600. The portrait of the woman stood in for the real one on their wedding day. Her hefty Medici dowry was going to help France’s large military debt be paid off. He was outspoken in the fact he did not which to marry her. He was heard muttering, “By God, if I must marry her then I must.”

Not only did the money help, so did her faith. People accused him of being a fake Catholic, so he took a Catholic wife. Most of France was Catholic, so the king had to be the religion of the majority.

Children Followed

Marie gave birth to a son one year after the wedding. Five additional children would follow. Daughter Elisabeth married the future King Philip IV of Spain before Mariana of Austria. Her daughter Henriette married Charles I of England.

The Regent Rules

Henry IV was assassinated in 1610 by a fanatical Catholic. At only nine years old, little Louis XIII could not rule yet.  Marie de’ Medici became regent. She was disliked tremendously.

When Louis XIII was old enough to take the throne, advisors convinced him that Marie de’ Medici had abused her power. Fearing she would try to usurp,  her son exiled her from Paris, in 1617.

She and Louis XIII reconciled in 1619, in the Treaty of Angouleme. She returned to Luxembourg Palace, in 1620.

About Rubens

Peter Paul Rubens, (1577 was a Baroque Flemish painter with masterpieces that include portraits and landscapes, religious and mythological compositions.

Although Rubens was born in Germany, after his father’s death, in 1587, his mother moved the family to Antwerp, Belgium.  Here, he apprenticed as an artist. As soon as he had completed his training, he set out for Italy to study the great Renaissance and classical works.

Returning home eight years later, he was appointed court painter to the rulers of the Netherlands, the Archduke Albert, and his wife Isabella. He soon set up his own study receiving so many commissions that he had to hire a large team to help.

When Marie de’ Medici commissioned this painting cycle, Rubens was worried. Much of her life was not positive and was not suitable to put on a canvas. How was he going to fill 24 canvases? Rubens got inventive and elevated mundane moments of her life with mythological and allegorical figures

(3) 93. Palace at Versailles.

Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart. French.  Begun in 1669. Northern (French) Baroque

Learning Objective: 17^th century. Northern Baroque (French) royal architecture

Themes:

Domestic
Politics
Power
Appropriation
Status
Landscape
Rulers
Man vs nature
Propaganda
Light

Palace at Versailles, was expanded from a hunting lodge, once owned by King Louise XIII, by architects Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart. King Louise the XIV, requested it be lavishly built up and the architects used masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf.

Charles Le Brun was the interior designer and decorator.

The palace sits on over 2000 acres, including the surrounding woods and marshland, in Versailles, France. 

A Place of Grandeur

The whole building is built in the Baroque Classicism style. French Baroque added more color to exteriors than Italian Baroque. The Palace of Versailles takes the classical vocabulary and adds drama, movement, color, and extravagance.

The palace alone has 700 rooms and has more than 12 football fields of floor space. It was centered in a vast garden and town complex radiating from it, like the sun in the center. This was in reference to Louis XIV as sun king.

More than 2150 windows, have beautiful views of the surrounding gardens and landscapes. The gardens complement the palace and act as a frame.

The Place of Versailles displayed King Louis XIV prestige, power, and divine right to rule. The interiors, filled with art and statuary were a display of wealth.  The palace was meant to awe and amaze viewers, particularly nobles who might otherwise challenge the king.

SUB-IMAGE 1 (Marble Court)

The marble court was a visitors first view of the extravagant Versailles. Here the court received its guests.

The basic structure is classical, symmetrical, and repetitive. It is based on Corinthian order, with rounded arched windows, pilasters, and classically inspired sculpture. The roof is typically French Baroque, with a blue shingled roof.  Pattern is crafted on the floors with marble.

The style was intentionally used to remind people of the greatness of antiquity and to illustrate a parallel between antiquity and the French.

SUB-IMAGE 2 (North Façade)

 The North Façade is viewed when walking through the back garden toward the palace.

 This is a work of Baroque classicism. The Corinthian order uses, symmetrical, repetitive, columns; engaged columns; pilasters; rounded roman arches and a tripartite exterior. It adds a moving and bulging façade for a sense of grandness, and decoration on the top of the floor.

SUB-IMAGE 3 (Hall of Mirrors)

This is the most famous room in the Palace of Versailles. It runs along the length of the central building. Mirrors were expensive and a multitude of large mirrors in a room was considered an expensive extravagance. There are 357 mirrors in all that reflect the rays of the sun from the windows opposite.

The mirrors help to make the grand room even bigger.

This barrel-vaulted room , with painted ceilings, was used mainly as a passageway for the king. It led from his private apartments to his private chapel. The ceiling illustrates the king’s military victories.

SUB-IMAGE 4 (Gardens)

In the garden, long views were important avenues to gaze upon and stroll through. Gardens of this size relied on strict geometric patterning to help organize them.  Known as a French garden it was controlled, contrived, not intended to look natural. This was a metaphor for the king’s rule of country and court.

Plants were imported and had an exotic look. The gardeners used embroidery patterns in hedges and trees.  A sculptural program throughout the gardens included mythological imagery centered on the Greek God Apollo.

Over 100 fountains which were turned on and off as the king strolled by so that he would never see any that were not working but they did not have to waste running water.

The Sun King

France by the mid-17^th century had emerged as the most powerful country in Europe.  Louis XIV,  known as the “Sun King” was the absolute monarch of France. Absolutism means full power resides with the king. There were only advisors to support him. Parliament or an equal governing body did not exist. It was argued that this was the divine right of the king as he received his power directly from God.

Louis’ famous phrase was, “L’etat, c’est moi.” This translates into,  “I am the state.”

From Hunting Lodge to Palace for the Nobles

Versailles was originally a small hunting lodge that had become run down. Louis XIV decided to build a new palace and expand Versailles. Then, he moved his court out of Paris.

The king felt nobles in Paris were too comfortable. They had easy access to finery that allowed them to compete with the king. Once Versailles was complete, all nobles were required to live there. This way, Louis could keep his eyes on them. Nobles submitted to his power, and they left their own feudal estates.

In total there were 20,000 nobles, courtiers, servants, bureaucrats, and soldiers. Life was dictated by extreme social conventions. It rotated around celebrations of the king, of course!

(3) 95. The Virgin of Guadalupe

Miguel González. New Spain. 1698 CE.  Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe, Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City.

Learning Objective: 17^th century Southern Baroque New Spanish enconchado painting

Themes:

Cross-cultural
Religion
Vision
Human and divine
Devotional object
Materials with significance

Museum: LACMA, Los Angeles, California

The Virgin of Guadalupe, created by Miguel González, is an artwork made from oil on canvas. placed on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and measuring 39 by 27 inches.

This is an example of Baroque work during the time, with its extravagant and decorative design. The inspiration for the work was Japanese lacquerware part of Asian decorative arts that was extremely popular. This work uses a Mexican technique created to approximate that look called enconchado. Concha means shell in Spanish.

The Art of Enconchado

Miguel González is considered one of the best artists in enconchado. This consisted of  placing tiny fragments of mother-of-pearl onto a canvas that sat on top of wood.  Then  the shells were covered with a yellowish tint and thin glazes of paint. This created a luminescence that could not be replicated by paint.

Enconchado paintings often have highly elaborate frames. The Virgin of Guadalupe is shell inlaid with lavish floral motifs.

Popularity of Virgin of Guadalupe

Veneration of Virgin of Guadalupe increased because people attributed her with miracles and interceding on their behalf during times of turmoil.

This work was created for individual worship and to display the owner’s piety. It also illustrated social status and wealth as enconchado technique was expensive, new, and trendy.

A Closer Look at the Work

The center depicts the Virgin of Guadalupe. She averts her gaze and clasps her hands together in piety. Standing on a crescent moon supported by a seraph, or holy winged being, she wears the traditional clothes of Mary. This consists of a long blue cloak with hood.  Roses decorate her dress and golden stars adorn her cloak.

A mandorla of light surrounds her. Rays frame her head in reference to her crown of stars.

In the roundels, the top left, top right, and bottom left scene apparitions. Each roundel is supported by an angelic figure.  In the bottom right Juan Diego unveils her image on tunic to the Bishop.

Historical Trade and Art

The Spanish Philippines traded with Japan.  Japanese goods arrived in Mexico, via Spanish ships enroute to Europe.  When Japan became isolationist in the 17^th century Japanese goods stopped arriving. This led to a high demand for Mexican artists to create some of their own Asian-inspired objects.

The Story of the Virgin of Guadalupe

The story of the Virgin of Guadalupe varies from region to region, but the basics remain the same. In December 1531, a man named Juan Diego was on his way to mass. He walked on theTepeyac hill, formerly a site of a shrine to an Aztec mother goddess. Here, the Virgin appeared to him as an apparition. She asked Juan Diego to tell the Bishop of Guadalupe to construct a shrine in her honor on the hill.

Juan Diego asked the Bishop.  He did not believe Juan Diego and requested proof.

Juan Diego returned to the site and saw her a second and third time. Finally, on the fourth meeting she told Juan Diego to take roses growing on the hillside and to the Bishop.

When Juan Diego opened his cloak,  the roses spilled out in front of the Bishop. The flowers were miraculously imprinted with the image of the Virgin.

Immediately, the Bishop began construction on the hill!

The Tunic

Virgin of Guadalupe’s tunic was kept by the church here as a relic.  Her image was made by an unknown artist. This image became the standard representation the Virgin of Guadalupe.

 

(3)  97. Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo.

Attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez. New Spain. 1715.

Learning Objective: 18^th century. Enlightenment casta painting

Themes:

Status
Cross-cultural
Science
Family
Race
Interpretation of history

Museum: Breamore House, Hampshire, UK

Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo is an oil on canvas work, attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez. This is an example of an early casta painting, depicting inter ethnic mixing of the Europeans and indigenous people of New Spain. It belongs to a larger series of works.

These are not portraits, but characters from the artist’s imagination. The artwork helps to illustrate life in the New World. In the artist earlier works, from which this is an example, he depicts the figures as wealthy and distinguished.

The space in the painting is not defined. This allows the viewer to focus on the figures entirely. These are painted naturally and realistically.

Marketplace for Casta Paintings

These works were commissioned by elite Europeans. Many series were commissioned by viceroys. These were to be given to Spanish rulers to illustrate the racial and ethnic mixings in the New World.

Racism in Art

A series of casta paintings usually contained 16 paintings or even 16 vignettes within one painting. The first in a series showed a European man with an elite indigenous woman and their child or mestizo, or racial mix.

As the family trees progressed in additional paintings and races continued to mix, the figures appeared less prominent and wealthy, and they appeared to have a darker skin tone.

Clothing, accoutrements, activities all aid in racially labeling the people in the work. All are numbered with text inscriptions, on the front or back, that label the races in the work.

All the above indicated society’s notion that social status, wealth, and overall worth were directly tied to race.

A Plus B Equals C

This image is the first in the series, depicting a husband, wife, and child. This is modeled after depictions of the Holy Family showing the Virgin, St. Joseph, and Christ.

The European father wears French-style European clothing complete with a powdered wig. The indigenous mother is dressed in a huipl, a traditional woman’s garment worn by indigenous women from central Mexico. It has lace sleeves. Her sumptuous jewelry indicates to the viewer that she is an aristocratic native. The two types of dress styles help to carry the subject matter of blended families forward.

The child is a racial mix of both parents. The family appears calm, harmonious, and loving. A young servant holds the child while looking up to the baby’s father.

Historical Context

Sociedad de Castas was the racial hierarchy developed in the New World to alleviate social anxieties over mixed-race people. European whites, New World whites, mestizos, indigenous peoples, mulattos, zambos, and African, were some of the descriptions used.

Casta paintings spoke to Enlightenment concerns, or specifically, the notion that people can be categorized racially based on ethnic makeup and appearance.

(3) 98. The Tête à Tête from Marriage à la Mode.

William Hogarth. English. 1743 CE.

Learning Objective: 18^th century English satire

Themes:

Male-female relationships
Satire
Status
Propaganda
Print
Iconography
Family

Museum: National Gallery in London

The Tête à Tête from Marriage à la Mode is an oil on canvas painting by artist William Hogarth, measuring  2 feet and 2 inches by 3 feet.

Hogarth made this collection of oil paintings with an intent to turn them into prints that could be sold to the masses at a reduced rate.

He used satire or humor to make a criticism of contemporary lifestyles of the upper classes. He could do this because his was selling the prints to the middle classes.

Marriage à la Mode means Marriage of the Day or Modern Marriage

Painting  1 (Marriage Contract)

Lord Squanderfield has a title but no money. He has squandered  his aristocratic fortunes. Pointing to his family tree, with a medieval knight suggesting a great lineage, he sits with a gout-ridden foot made worse with inactivity. There are Old Master’s paintings on the walls and construction going on outdoors in the new Palladian style.

Here, also sits a wealthy merchant without a title. Lord Squanderfield’s son and the merchant’s daughter are going to marry.

Young Squanderfield is picking snuff out of a box, while looking in the mirror at his own reflection. He has his back turned toward his soon to be bride, with disinterest. Black velvet patches cover syphilis marks.

The daughter sits frumpily and slumped over to show a lack of intelligence, while being wooed by Silvertongue, her father’s lawyer.

Painting 2 (The Tete a Tete)

Tete to Tete means “head-to-head” or “face to face”.

Shortly after the marriage, each partner has been pursuing pleasures without the other. The husband has been out all night with another woman and gambling. The dog sniffs at a bonnet in his jacket, as if assessing what the husband has been up to. The man looks tired and upset. There is a broken sword underneath him indicating a loss.

The wife has been playing cards all night. Her bodice is undone. She is yawning. Slyly she is looking out of the corner of her eye to see if he notices. Her lover has just left in a hurry! Notice the turned over chair. The violin player has made a hasty retreat. Violins were symbols of sexual pleasure, in old medieval reference, alluding to what has just taken place.

The accountant wears a frustrated expression. He throws his hands up in the air. She has lost a fortune at cards. He just cannot get this couple to take their finances seriously.

The chandelier’s candles have just gone out. They have been burning all evening.  A sculpture with a broken nose has been knocked over on the fireplace mantle. This indicates that although the couple have nice things, they do not bother to take care of them.

There is a nude painting on the back wall, next to three paintings of saints. The nude is covered with a cloth, but it is still visible. It has been covered in a haphazardly way, just like her affair!

A servant is yawning in the back room, while rearranging the chairs.

Painting 3 (The Inspection)

Young Squanderfield, suffering from syphilis, makes a visit to a doctor. Notice the black patches on his neck. Brandishing his cane, he shows the doctor the black mercury pills that do not work.

A sickly girl stands in front of him weeping. They both have the disease. The tall woman may be her mother or a madame.

The doctor too is riddled with disease.  His office is full of curiosities, including a skull. This could be symbolizing that the disease can cause death.

Painting 4 (The Toilette)

 Lord Squanderfield has died. Young Squandefield is now the Earl, and his wife is now the Countess.

In keeping with the height of fashion, Countess holds a toilette. Lawyer Silvertongue lounges, with his shoes off and feet up looking comfortable.

Silvertongue tries to get Countess to attend a masquerade with him because no one will know who they are. Beside him is a book called The Sofa, which was a common erotic novel of the day. There is a coral rope used for teething on the chair where the Countess sits. The baby is not in the artwork to illustrate her poor maternal skills.

The Old Masters’ paintings hanging depict Lot and His Daughters (incest), Jupiter and Io (seduction), and Rape of Ganymede (homosexual seduction).

Painting 5 (The Bagnio)

Squanderfield catches his wife with her lover, Silvertongue, in a bagnio, or inn, where rooms could be taken without questions asked. The Earl has burst into the room to find an unmade bed, recently used.

Squanderfield is fatally wounded by Silvertongue, who escapes.  A sword is on the floor The Earl is now dying, while Countess pleads for forgiveness.

The noise has awakened the inn. The Judgment of Solomon on the wall foreshadowing the inevitable destruction of all involved.

Painting 6 (The Lady’s Death)

Countess returns after her husband’s murder only to commit suicide after Silvertongue is hung for murder. The newspapers on the floor tell the viewer of the hanging.

The child’s legs have braces indicating she has rickets. This was understood at the time to be associated with overindulgence. She also has a black patch, indicating her misfortune of contracting syphilis from her parents. This family tree will come to a tragic end.

The merchant removes the rings from his daughter’s fingers before rigor mortis sets in.

Social History of the Period

Marriages in the past had been arranged for economic benefits. However, with the 18^th century marriages started to be based around love and affection.  This collection of works showed the downfall of an arranged marriage.

In the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, the landed aristocracy was losing power to a new upper-middle merchant class or bourgeoisie.  An increasingly large middle class wanted to buy art  prints.

About the Artist

English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764) trained as a silver engraver and print maker before becoming an artist. His work in oils was self taught.

Hogarth was known for tackling controversial topics. Beer Street and Gin Street were two engraving prints that drew focus to society’s alcoholism.

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Early European and Colonial Americas

200- 1750

Topic 3.5 Theories and Interpretations  of Early European and Colonial American Art