Chinese and Korean Art

Chinese and Korean Art

Theme for Chinese art: “Dynastic Power”

One of the most notable themes in Chinese art is power.

Power can be expressed in many forms:

• political power
• religious/spiritual power
• economic power
• and more!

Displays of formal imperial/dynastic power are the most common – even in 20^th century. Chinese history when dynastic power has ended, displays of political power are still common.

Historical Context

Confucianism

• Began by Confucius
• An ethical and philosophical system that creates an ideal man who respects traditional values.

Daoism (Taoism)

Aims to find the Dao (“way”) through withdrawing from society into nature to achieve serenity. The philosophy was started by Laozi (Lao-tsu).

• Yin-Yang
• Yin: female, soft, dark, wet, cold, passive
• Yang: male, hard, light, dry, warm, active, energy
• Mandate of Heaven + Dynasty Cycle
• Created an attitude of the desirability of tradition, permanence, and stability à art, just like political traditions and cultural hegemony, does not change

Buddhism in China

Starting with the 1st century C.E., Buddhism brought to China new ideas about life and death, and new opportunities to assimilate and assert authority.

Chinese rock cut caves were inspired, but different from the Indian rock cut caves. It preserved an assembly hall but instead of a stupa, it contained a Buddha statue.

There were Buddhist monasteries with a residence hall for the monks. The central hall (nave) was arranged to allow approaching the Buddha.

The first patrons of Buddhism were Northern Wei rulers—a Turkic people ruling over the Han Chinese who saw in Buddhism an opportunity for consolidating their power and reduce the importance of ancestors’ veneration. Yearning for assimilation and control, the foreign rulers made use of Buddhist images for authority and power.

The rock-cut caves were decorated with sculptural images made after Indian/Gandhara models and with robes decorated with linear/abstract Northern Wei style.

The later Tang dynasty leaders Emperor Gaozong (650–685) and his consort Wu Zetian, who later enthroned herself as empress (684–704), patronized Buddhist establishments and encouraged the efforts of monks to acquire and translate Buddhist texts from India.

During China’s golden age, Tang rulers asserted their sovereignty with the assistance of Buddhist iconography. The official examination system enabled educated men to serve as government officials, and laid the foundation for lasting growth, prosperity, and cultural development in art. Think Buddhism with Chinese features.

From the 4th -10th CE development and flowering of Chinese Buddhism would later be exported to Korea and Japan.

• Pure Land Buddhism focused on the faith in the savior Buddha Amitabha
• Chan (or Zen) Buddhism: meditation/mindfulness during daily activities
• still imported new Indic and Central Asian practices : the devotion to the primordial Buddha Vairocana, new bodhisattvas, and the use of the mandala’s cosmic diagrams.

(8) 193. Terra cotta warriors.

Chinese (Qin).  221-209 BCE. Chinese.

Learning Objective: Chinese mausoleum

Themes:

Funerary
Afterlife
Politics
Power
Military
Status
Rulers
Propaganda
Site-specific

Terra cotta warriors are works of terra cotta which were originally painted. The 6 feet tall figures were found in the Mausoleum of the first Qin emperor are mostly of men.

The figures are made from hollow clay created in an assembl

y line fashion. Then, each was fine-tuned to create a surprising amount of individualism. The work required 700,000 workers.

Function

• Placed in mausoleum for Shi Huangdi
• Display of Shi Huangdi’s status (political and divine)
• Accompany him in the afterlife, suggesting that he would rule his empire eternally
• Uses peasant or lower-class labor to glorify state power
• Very similar to Seated Scribe!

Content

Shi Huangdi wanted to take the whole court with him.

• All pieces were buried with Shi Huangdi’s tomb
• 8,000 terracotta warriors (6 feet tall and all unique)
  • Archers; foot soldiers; commanders; officials; cavalry with horses
• 100 wooden chariots
• 2 bronze chariots
• 30,000 weapons
• Musicians, acrobats, dogs

Historical Outline

• Era of Warring States leads to Zhou collapse
• Shi Huangdi unifies most states under his power in 221 BCE and begins Qin Dynasty
  • Used centralized system
  • Codified written Chinese
  • Standardized weights and coins
  • Established single currency
  • Constructed Great Wall
  • Utilized Legalism
• Construction began in 221 BCE when he took power
• Shi Huangdi was an opium addict who believed that mercury had life-giving power and surrounded himself with it. (a river close by has unusually high levels of mercury)
• Discovered in 1974 by local farmers digging for a well
  • It was believed a legend until this point
  • Center tumulus is not excavated (probably where he is buried)
  • They estimate they are not halfway done

 

(8) 194. Funeral banner of Lady Dai. 

Chinese (Han). 180 BCE. Chinese.

Learning Objective: Chinese funeral banner

Themes:

Funerary
Afterlife
Status
Textile
Portrait
Ceremony
Materials with significance
Human and divine

Funeral banner of Lady Dai is an artwork of painted silk that measure 6 feet by 7 inches long. This is an early example of painted naturalistic scenes in Chinese art.

During this time, we begin to see some of the Chinese 2D characteristics:

• heavy black calligraphic line
• use of red and black
• stylized figures

This is the earliest known Chinese portrait. Painted silk was a common and expensive artform in China.

Function

This work was a sign of status, as painted silk was an expensive artform.

It was used to attract the spirit of the deceased to its tomb, where it could be properly started on its afterlife journey– instead of remaining on earth to bother the living. (This is like Tut’s tomb)

It was part of the funeral procession and was carried in front, before being draped upon her coffin.

Here is What We See

• Vertical divisions
  • Left: yin (female component = moon)
  • Center: yin + yang
  • Right: yang (male component = sun)

• Horizontal divisions
  • Heaven
    • Dragons, toads, moon, crow on red sun
    • At the very top, a twisted red dragon, is an imperial ancestor (to show her noble lineage)
    • At the bottom of the cross of the T are two kneeling guides who will shepherd her to the afterlife

• Earth (where Lady Dai and her attendants are)
  • • She carries her long cane (which was found in her tomb; she had sciatica – leg pain from pressure on nerves in lower back)
    • Accompanied by mourner-attendants who bid her farewell

• Underworld (body of Lady Dai and her mourners; underworld is not equivalent to Hell)
  • • Below her, and with dragons wrapped through it, is a bi (pronounced “bee”; round circular disc with a hole in the middle; symbol of heaven)
    • Sacrificial funerary rituals take place
    • Vessels for food and wine while corpse is wrapped in robe

• Shows her journey to Heaven
• Long dragons frame the scene – symbol of the supernatural
• She is wearing her own funeral banner over her shoulders

A Market for Art

During the Han Dynasty the Silk Road trade was incredibly popular and wealthy individuals in China invested in art.

Who was Lady Dai?

She was the wife of Marquis of Dai, a high-ranking civil servant. The lady died around the age of 50. Lady Dai lived in Han Dynasty which was the Golden Age of Classical China with a highly stratified society.

Only elites could afford elaborate rituals.

The Find

The tombs of Marquis of Dai, Lady Dai and her son were all discovered in 1971. Lady Dai was put to rest in seven nested lacquer coffins.  Her body was found wrapped in 20 layers of silk. The airtight tomb was 36 feet underground in a clay lined and charcoal packed hole. (Charcoal absorbs moisture)

All the above led to a very well-preserved body. Her skin was still elastic, joints flexible, she had eyelashes and nostril hair. Blood remained in her veins, and all organs were intact.

She died of a heart attack. There were 138 melon seeds in her body which suggests she died shortly after eating the fruit.

 

(8) 195. Buddha at Longmen Caves.

Chinese (Sui, Tang, Song). 493-1127 CE. Chinese.

Learning Objective: Chinese Buddhist sculpture

Themes:

Politics
Propaganda
Religion
Place of worship
Rulers

Buddha at Longmen Caves is located at Longmen Caves, in Luoyang, China. Made from hard, gray limestone the largest Buddha measures 57 feet. These were carved in situ into living rock as high relief. Here there are 2,300 caves and niches that extends for over a mile.

The Buddha and bodhisattvas display a new, softer, and rounder modeling, as well as facial expressions. Vajrapani and lokapala display a more engaging and animated musculature, with forceful poses. These would have been painted in brilliant blues, reds, browns, and golds.

Why this was Created

This is a place of Buddhist worship.

The patrons were emperors (and one empress) and this was the display of power and piety of these people. Rulers wielded Buddhism to affirm their piety, superiority, and tolerance.  Specifically, this revealed the strength and spirituality of Tang Dynasty. It was a metaphor for political power.

This arrangement with Buddha in the center emphasized a correct religious order.

Similarly, the Tang Dynasty was struggling to balance bureaucrats and aristocrats, who consistently posed a threat to the emperors. For emperors to sponsor productions of artworks such as these was to show that there was a likeness between the emperors and Buddha. Thus, aristocrats and bureaucrats should be subservient to the emperor, just as bodhisattvas and disciples were to Buddha.

This sculptural arrangement intentionally mirrored the political situation – one person is supreme.

Content

Buddha at Longmen Caves contains in total almost 110,000 Buddhist stone statues, more than 60 stupas, and 2800 inscriptions.

A Look at Fengxian Cave

The specific cave we are examining is called Fengxian Cave.  Here 9 figures pose as a group.

From Left to right:

• Vajrapani
• Lokapala
• Bodhisattva
• Disciple
• Vairocana Buddha (Buddha who represents all the infinite wisdom in the universe),
• Disciple
• Bodhisattva
• Lokapala
• Vajrapani

A bodhisattva are Buddhists who do not pass on to nirvana, but who stays to help.

Vajrapani are Chinese guardians of Buddha, who wields thunderbolts. The violence is justified only if there is a threat made to Buddha.

Lokapala are heavenly kings who watch over one of each of the cardinal directions.

There are many smaller figures of deities, monks, and donors surrounding the nine main figures.

Context

Most of the carvings date between the end of the 5^th century and the middle of the 8^th century (Northern Wei through early Tang). Wei had moved capital to Luoyang in 494 CE.

Tang Dynasty was considered the age of Buddhism in China

• Buddhism and Confucianism each vied for power over emperors.
• Many Chinese, Indian, Central Asian, and Southeast Asian monks traveled through Asia, spreading Buddhism’s messages.
• Alternating periods of Chinese Buddhism’s popularity or lack thereof prevented constant flow of work.
• Largest period of construction (and the construction of Fengxian Caves) was sponsored by Emperor Gaozong, and his wife and the one and only empress of China, Empress Wu.

 

Cross Cultural Comparison

Fengxian (Ancestor Worshipping Cave) Temple (673–75 C.E., Tang dynasty, limestone. Luoyang, Henan province)

• situated high above the riverbed, the array of the 9 colossal statues sponsored by Emperor Gaozong and his wife (future Empress Wu) dominate the Longmen site
• the high relief sculptures carved into hard, gray limestone are widely spaced in a semi-circle with a central monumental Buddha standing more than 55 feet high, pedestal included.
• flanked on each side by a monk, a bodhisattva, a heavenly king, and a thunderbolt holder
• depicts the supreme Vairochana (Primordial) Buddha of Mahayana Buddhism
• the pairing of religious and military figures on either side of a large central Buddha symbolized the religious and military factions that together supported a strong ruler.

This is an innovative composition in which the religious system mirrors the imperial system, reinforcing the Mandate of Heaven ideas with Buddhism iconism. The message is that the Tang emperor is the earthly representative of the supreme Vairochana Buddha.

The opulence, Buddha’s lotus position, the halo and flaming mandorla carved into the wall behind suggest the harmonious paradise of the Pure Land Buddhism. The clear and symmetrical ordering of the statues recalls a Confucian context.

Buddha, monks (arhats) and bodhisattvas display rounder and serene facial expressions. The heavenly guardians and the thunderbolt holder (vajrapani) are more realistic, engaging, and animated, with realistic musculature and forceful poses.

Buddha’s features (iconography): lotus pose, elongated earlobes, downcast eyes, a halo, and mandorla carved on the rock behind, Gandharan robes falling in concentric circles.

Tradition

The Fengxian (Ancestor Worshipping Cave) illustrates the Pure Land Buddhism which added mystical elements to the basic Buddhist teachings. This was popular in China and Japan. By living a moral life, through faith, trust, and a personal relationship with the (savior) Amitabha Buddha, believers reach the Pure Land a realm free of spiritual corruption, where it is easier to achieve enlightenment

Buddhist symbolism supports the Mandate of Heaven, an ancient Chinese belief held that gods granted the emperors the right to rule based on their ability to govern well and justly.

(9) 214. Moai on platform (ahu).

Rapa Nui (Easter Island). c. 1100–1600 C.E. Volcanic tuff figures on basalt base.

The size of the stone figures announces their legitimacy, power, and life force. Just like Buddha they used to be living creatures, i.e. honored ancestors. Most of them do not face the ocean but look inland watching over their descendants.

The moai are endowed with a spiritual force called MANA.

The carvers “awaken” the states from the compressed volcanic ash, insert eyes of white coral with inlaid pupils of red or black rock which makes their eyes staring. They are called “living faces” (Buddha’s eyes look down with compassion)

While moai slender arms are pressed close to the sides, Buddha’s hands and their codified mudras are an indication of his message to the world of believers.

They share elongated earlobes as a status sign which in Buddhism also translated in the willingness to hear the suffering.

Also, both statues have topknots.

Made of red stone the moai topknots are gigantic weighing as much as 10 ton.

 

(8) 201. Travelers Among Mountains and Streams.

Fan Kuan. Chinese. (Song). 1000 CE. Chinese.

Learning Objective: Chinese silk scroll

Themes:

Landscape
Status
Man v. nature
Text and image
Materials with significance

Museum: National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan

Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, by artist Fan Kuan is a work comprised of ink and color on silk. It measures 7 feet by 3 feet and 4 inches.

This work has:

• Crisp brushwork
• Painting on silk
• Height is emphasized by filling up the composition

There are gaps between the foreground, middleground, and background. This suggests space in between. Negative space implies space is moving backwards and receding.

Scrolls were selected by artists based on color and texture and usually have the title up on the top right.

Style Features

There are six components that Fan Kuan was taught by his master, as were many literati.

• Spirit/vitality
• Harmony/rhythm
• Mental concentration
• Scenery
• Brushwork
• Ink

What was the Function of a Scroll?

Scrolls were expensive, a sign of status, and something you would display to your guests. These artworks were not permanently displayed. They were meant to be admired and studied but carefully packed away.

One can study the image, meditate upon it and generally slow down. This provokes the same response as gazing at a beautiful vista would.

There is immensity of nature. Man is dwarfed by nature. There is also beauty in nature. Men can get lost in nature and revel at its immensity.

A Display of Daoist Attitude

Scrolls could also display the Daoist attitude of Yin and Yang.

• Daoism was popular amongst the elite
• Yin: female; dark; receptive; yielding; weak
• Yang: male; light; assertive; creative; strong
• The interaction of these complementary ideas is necessary to natural order

The Content of Travelers Among Mountains and Streams.

• A group of travelers with pack mules travel through the mountainside and pass along a stream
• Qualities of yin and yang
  • Some parts are empty and barren (yin), others are crowded and full (yang)
  • Mountains (yang) and sky (yin)
  • Water (yin) and sunlight (yang)
• Gritty mountainside takes up 2/3 of the picture
• Based on real geological traits (vegetation tends to only grow in fine soil and mountains tend to have deep crevices)
• This is probably a constructed landscape (this was not seen as a lie or fabrication, but rather that man could create a perfect landscape)

Historical Context

During the chaos of the Five Kingdoms period (between the Tang and Song dynasties), many scholars and artists fled to the mountains. Known as literati these people were disenchanted with human affairs and turned towards nature.

Scenes that depicted majestic landscapes developed into an ironically popular style in urban China. China elevated landscape paintings to an important subject for art, hundreds of years before Western artists would.

About the Artist

Fan Kuan, was an artist and a Daoist hermit, whom very little is known about. He is famous for landscapes in the Song period, and this is possibly his only surviving work.

 

 (8) 204. The David Vases.

Chinese (Yuan). 1351 CE. Chinese.

Learning Objective: Chinese porcelain

Themes:

Offering
Cross-cultural
Decorative arts
Commemoration
Ceremony
Text and image
Animals

Museum: British Museum, London

The David Vases a set of two vases made from white porcelain with cobalt-blue underglaze each stand 2 feet tall.

Porcelain is a very specific kind of ceramic that is hard, white, brittle, and shiny. It gets the name from Marco Polo. Porcelain is close to the Italian name for a cowrie shell, and he thought it looked as shiny as a shell.

Underglaze means the decoration is applied to the surface before it is glazed. This makes the decoration durable.

Parts of the Vase

• Lip
• Neck
• Handles on neck
• Shoulder
• Body
• Foot

Focus

The David Vases are one of the most famous cultural specimens of Chinese porcelain art. As part of the collection of Sir David Percival, they received the eponymous title! Sir Percival was known to possess a vast collection of Chinaware. He bought 1500 pieces of china during the Chinese Civil War, in the early 20th century, from Dowager Empress Cixi. She sold them to gain funds for the war.

The pair of artifacts exhibit a far eastern and middle eastern merger concerning the shape and the motifs they manifest. The viewer should deliberately focus on this aspect of cultural exchange. At the same time, they have an inscription on the neck, which stands out vividly. The inscription mentions the name and date of the artifact.

Content

The two David Vases are identical with similar forms, colors, and materials. Made from porcelain, they are supposedly denoted to the deteriorated versions made in bronze, which was prevalent in the 13th and 14th centuries.

The identical vases possess the shape of an elongated vase with a handle on the neck above the shoulder. The form has a cylindrical base that tapers inwards to acquire a balanced grip on the ground. Above the same, two moldings create initial lower sections. The main body of the vase forms an arch near the shoulder, which concludes with molding. The elongated neck, a bit lesser than the length of the main body, joins to the thick rim, forming the head of the vase. The handles are shaped in the form of an elephant head and trunk on both sides.

The artisans, maintaining the minimalistic approach, have used blue pigment on the white porcelain. The design of the vases is a blend of animals and decorative foliage. The lower cylindrical body is divided into equal sections comprising symbolic motifs. The following section displays floral motifs while the main body has a single dragon with an undulating body covering the entire circumference. Following the molding with a decorative pattern, the first section has the form of a flying phoenix amidst clouds. Divided by protruding partitions, the upper neck section has a pattern of successively repetitive vertical leaves. The head of the vase shows alternating floral motifs with foliage.

Function

The David Vases do not have a special function to serve because they were for the altar of a Daoist temple. However, they have a vivid inscription at the cusp of the shoulder and the neck above the band of the dragon. The inscription mentions the name of the official who commissioned these elegant pair of blue and white Chinese wares.

Porcelain was used to create the initial vases. They were then painted with blue pigment. Artists deglazed at the end, thereby increasing the longevity of the pigments. This process is called underglaze. Hence, the vases are still intact and continue to gleam the space.

Tradition

Although the material of porcelain indicates the Chinese traditions, the visual elements are borrowed from the Middle eastern regions of art. The middle east Mesopotamia zone was an artistic hub that created many copper-inlaid-with-gold vases. The designs, apart from arabesque, also had human figures and inscriptions, which served as a document to the history of the ware. Hence, these traditions seemed to have penetrated in Chinese workshops with the Mongol invasion. The kingdom of Mongols had expanded over nearly all of Asia.

China was the lead producer of porcelain, and hence the products were typically known as chinaware. And, as it appears, the blue and white porcelain products are quintessentially Chinese. Some of the kilns made by China could reach 2200 Fahrenheit.

Patron

Because of the easy to read and distinct inscription, we know that these vases were commissioned by Zhang Wenjin of Yushan county in 1351. Along with The David Vases, he also presented an incense burner to a Daoist temple in Xingyua (modern-day Wuyan county). Yushan county is situated 120 km from Jingdezhen, where the vases were apparently made.

The inscription descriptively mentions the professional background of Wenjin who was in the salt trade. He made these vases as an offering to the temple to appease the god for his sins. At the same time, he also wanted to protect his family from evil.

The inscription reads:

信州路。玉山縣。順城鄉。德教里。荊塘社。奉聖弟子。張文進。喜捨。香炉。花瓶。一付。祈保。合家清吉。子女平安。至正十一年。四月。良辰。謹記。星源。祖殿。胡淨一元帥。打供。

Translation

“Zhang Wenjin, from Jingtang community, Dejiao village, Shuncheng township, Yushan county, Xinzhou circuit, a disciple of the Holy Gods, is pleased to offer a set comprising one incense burner and a pair of flower vases to General Hu Jingyi at the original palace in Xingyuan, as a prayer for the protection and blessing of the whole family and the peace of his sons and daughters. Carefully offered on an auspicious day in the 4th month, 11th year of the Zhizheng reign.”

Setting

During this period of the 14th century, Mongols had captured the entire stretch of the middle east to the far east. This stimulated an enormous amount of exchange in art, culture, and commerce between the Yuan dynasty of China and the Ilkhan empire of Iran. The blue pigment or cobalt in chinaware was imported from the Iranian Ilkhan empire. At the same time, the form of the vases also reflects a similarity with the bronze vases, which was a popular art activity in the middle east. The motifs and the pattern were also a middle east influence.

 

(8) 206. Forbidden City.

Ming Dynasty. 15^th century. CE and later.

Learning Objective: Chinese palace

Themes:

Domestic
Politics
Power
Propaganda
Man vs. nature
Public
Entryways
Appropriation
Cross-cultural
Status
Architecture

Forbidden City located in Beijing, China is a stunning Chinese Palace made of stone masonry, marble, brick, wood, and ceramic tile. It sits in the center of the city on 178 acres.

Most of the building is timber and brick, with sloping rooflines and glazed roof tiles. The emphasis is on traditional craftsmanship through the support of Chinese laborers. Tile roofs curve upward to allow light in and keep rain out.

The Significance of Numbers

Extensive use of the number 3 and multiples of 3 are used throughout. There are three tiered roofs, and the staircases have 9 steps.

• Number 3 is associated with harmony between yin and yang
• Number 9 is associated with divinity of emperor

The Meaning of Color

The use of color in the Forbidden City also has meaning. These are the four main colors.

• Red represents the sun.
• Yellow represents the earth.
• Blue represents the Heavens.
• White is a symbol of purity.

SUB-IMAGE 5 Floorplan

The courtyard style residence uses a geometric organization of space that is aligned with the cardinal directions.

Outer court represented Earth

• Pointed towards the South.
• Belonged to realm of state affairs and only men had access to its spaces.
• Included: emperor’s formal reception halls, places for religious rituals and state ceremonies.
• Hall of Supreme Harmony represented central focus.

Inner court represented Heaven

• Pointed towards the North
• Private space
• Eastern and Western sides reserved for retired emperor and empress dowager
• Also included Buddhist and Daoist temples building during Ming Dynasty

Symbolism

The symbolism shows the relationship between Heaven and Earth. Emperor is the Son of Heaven and can mediate both worlds.

Power is conveyed visually and there is a spatial representation of power. This shows the emperor’s power over laws and regulations since he can regulate and reorganize nature.

The architects followed ideal cosmic order and social hierarchy in Confucianism.

Function

The complex was to showcase Yongle’s magnificence during turbulent years after the overthrow of his nephew. It was a visual assertion of imperial power with ceremonial space, ritual space and living space.

It was named the Forbidden Palace because only royal court could enter.

The complex was a political and ritual center for China for 500+ years. It was a place of power and propaganda that legitimized rulers and became visual evidence for the Mandate of Heaven.

SUB-IMAGE 1 North Gate (Gate of Divine Might)

Here are some key points about the North Gate:

• Walls are 30 feet high to keep people out
• Designed to withstand cannons
• Gate from which troops would often leave
• 3 openings: middle one was reserved for the emperor only
• Heavily guarded day and night

SUB-IMAGE 2 Tiananmen Gate (Front Gate) (Gate of Heavenly Peace)

This gate has been destroyed and rebuilt several times.

There are Five entryways:

• The largest in the center was used as passage for Ming and Qing emperors.
• The side ones are smaller and were used for officials.

The double-eaved roof is guarded by two pairs of Ming stone lions.

Mao Zedong

Today the gate is characterized by a giant framed portrait of Mao Zedong weighing 1.5 tons. Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949.

There are two placards:

• Left: Long Live the People’s Republic of China
• Right: Long Live the Great Unity of the World’s Peoples

The phrases have significant meaning as “Long Live” was reserved for Emperors of China. But afterward it was available to common people because Mao had liberated it…just like Forbidden City!

In 1989, three dissidents attacked the portrait with eggs during the Tiananmen Square protests. They were sent to prison for 17 years (released 2006).

SUB-IMAGE 3 Hall of Supreme Harmony

The Emperor’s seat is in here and was meant for grand ceremonies such as enthronements and weddings. From here, the emperor could establish cosmic order and mediate between both worlds. This is the middle of the site.

• 9 main bays wide and 9 dragons inside (9 is a special number)
• Bureaucrats and officials would gather in front of the gate at 3 am waiting for the emperor to walk by at 5am.

 SUB-IMAGE 4 Palace of Tranquility and Longevity

The Northeastern section was a complex built by the Qianlong Emperor in anticipation of his retirement in the 18^th century. He planned to retire and abdicate, then settle down in modest quarters here, along with his major art collection.

This part of the complex is called the Studio of Exhaustion from Diligent Service and this room is the theater room. The layout mirrors the arrangement of the Forbidden City.

The finest craftsmen of the day spent five years building just this palace. He never spent a night here.

In the 1920s, the palace was chained shut and largely forgotten. It has now been restored to what was imagined it would have been like.

If he didn’t sleep here, what did he do here?

There were gardens, banquet rooms, prayer halls, an opera house, and a theater room. It was a place to meditate, write poetry, and enjoy company of concubines.

It was a simple rectangular room with translucent embroidered scenes, jade-inlaid wall hangings and Chinese carved decoration. There were also panoramic murals painted on silk, wisteria painted on ceilings, along with magpies flying over the tiled rooves of the palace. This was a blend of traditional Chinese painting with the Western use of perspective and optical illusion (trompe l’oeil). This was a testament to the emperor’s patronage of Giuseppe Castiglione, an Italian artist who was paid to come in and paint.

The small pavilion was equipped with a stage and surrounded with bamboo fence.

Context

The Ming in Ming Dynasty means brilliant. It is meant to be a brilliant return to the past.

The construction of the Forbidden city was the result of a scandalous coup plotted by Zhu Di (soon to be Yongle emperor). Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu emperor. When Hongwu died in 1398, his first son was named next emperor. But when he died it was the first son’s child who became emperor (Jianwen Emperor).

Jianwen Emperor began executing his uncles, to remove them as threats. This angered Zhu Di who overthrew him and established himself as Yongle Emperor (Yongle means perpetual happiness). To solidify his power, the Yongle emperor moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing and began building a new palace. He needed to show that he had the Mandate of Heaven, to display power and legitimacy and to protect himself.

The Qing Dynasty continue to live and rule here.  The last occupant was Puyi who was last emperor and was expelled by Chinese nationalists. Later it was liberated by Mao as a symbol of dynastic overthrow and the new Communist state of China

Forbidden City Imperial Power and Authority

How can we attribute the art-historical period during which the Forbidden City was constructed? How do both the plan and the architecture demonstrate the culture and/or patron’s function and/or purpose of the structure?

The Forbidden City designates the Beijing palace of the Chinese emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties who ruled China from the 15th century until the early 20th century. The planning of the imperial palace took place during the reign of the 3rd Qing Emperor Yongle and it was done according to the Chinese traditions.

The city was rectangular just like the world according to Chinese traditions and its name “Purple City” corresponded to the central star of the Chinese sky the “small purple star” (the Western Polar star).

The plan and the architecture of the city reflect the ideal cosmic order in Confucian ideology. The imperial palace was planned on a north-south axis, with a parade avenue which crossed the whole city and connected the gates. The first two gates, the Meridian and Supreme Harmony Gates open to courtyards. The palace rules emphasized the segregation according to rank to underline the authority of the emperor.

The Meridien Gate had 5 Portals:

• The central gate was reserved for the emperor.
• The other middle gates were reserved for family and officials
• The outermost gates were used for servants.

The second courtyard leads to three halls:

• the Hall of Supreme Harmony,
• the Hall of Central Harmony, and
• the Hall of Protecting Harmony.

These halls belonged to realm of state affairs and were reserved to men. They are elevated on a monumental three-tiered white marble terrace. Their tiled roofs are two-tiered and their wooden eaves are painted in intricate patterns all demonstrating the power and authority of the emperor. The roofs are yellow which is the imperial color. Their ridges are decorated with animal ornaments and heavenly guardians and the more important the building, the greater the number of clay figures.

The roof of the Hall of Harmony is crowned with two huge dragon ornaments weighing almost 4 tones each. Here is where the dragon throne was located. The dragon symbolized the power of the emperor.

The three Halls are the last buildings in which officials had access. The rest of the city was reserved for the imperial family, which earned it the nickname of Forbidden City.

The segregation from commoners and officials was complete and emphasized the divine role and duty of the emperor. Symbolically the outer South court represented Earth, and the inner Northern court represented Heaven. Only the Emperor as the Son of Heaven and could mediate both worlds.

The main palaces of the private quarters, the emperor’s Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and empress Palace of Earthly Tranquility are also elevated. Most have two-tiered roofs and intricate caisson ceilings. The symbolism of the dragons continues in the inner court with the Nine Dragons tiled screen of the retired emperor palace.

The grandeur of the inner court surpasses the one of the outer court. The Palace of Heavenly Purity was so large and inconvenient for daily life that after Kangxi, the emperors chose to reside in a smaller Hall quoting their filial piety towards the greatest of the Chinese emperors.

(8) 212. Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan.

Based on an oil painting by Liu Chunhua. Chinese (PRC). 1969 CE. Socialist Realism.

Learning Objective: Socialist Realism

Themes:

Politics
Propaganda
Power
Ideal man
Print
Interpretation of history

Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan was made by an unknown artist but based on an oil painting by Liu Chunhua. This color lithograph produced in the late 1960s measures 2 feet by 4 inches.

The work features a low horizon line to enlarge the figure and atmospheric perspective.

It is painted with Western realism as it is modeled, in 3D, has precision, and accuracy with form. There is realism of fabric, body, and landscape.

Mao is idealized, luminous, lighter than the background so he stands out. When this painting was first made, he was in his 70s, but he appears much younger.

As for colors there is no use of traditional reds. Instead, purples, greens, browns are used. The symbolic colors were abandoned for realistic colors.

All About Color Lithographs

When an image is popular artists want to make prints of it for reproduction.

Here are the steps:

• Draw image the with and oily crayon on a flat stone
• Cover the stone with water. It is repelled from the oily crayon.
• Cover the plate with oil-based ink. It is repelled from the places where the water was and latches onto the oily crayon.
• Press the paper down on top. Apply pressure
• To make a color lithograph, you would need multiple stones – one for each color.

 Function

This work was intended to be propaganda, emotionally moving and present an interpretation of history. It was made when Mao was not in a position of strength. He has found himself in this trouble because of the failure of the Great Leap Forward.

The point of this work was to help Mao regain power and mend the country. This was to convince others that Mao could lead the country again, like he had through the revolution, despite the Great Leap Forward.

The emphasize was on Mao’s grassroots beginnings and his inherent strength. It shows him as a revolutionary who was committed to championing the common people and doing what was right by addressing the lives of the working class.

This work was described by Communist party officials as a “model work”.

Mao looks the heroic, ennobled, aggrandized leader, who is honorable, successful, and determined.

The image was widely published in newspapers and journals, as well as reproduced in the form of posters, statues, and kitchenware. Some believe there were more than 900 million copies made.

The Visuals

• The strike hasn’t happened yet. He is brave because this is the dawn of a new day.
• Heroic pose as he strides forward among lush fields.
• The winds of change literally blow through the valley.
• Chinese landscape now serves a new purpose – it shows the struggle of the common man and the beauty of China’s people.
• Telephone pole in the distance associates Mao with technology.
• Umbrella tucked beneath one arm, hand in a fist – he is superhuman, charismatic, determined, practical.

Context

In the early 1920s, Mao and other communists helped guide the 13,000 miners’ strike at the Anyuan Coal Mine to protest the treatment of workers and demand higher wages.

This resulted in higher wages, better conditions, an education program, and widespread support for the Communists. Mao emerged as one of the most significant and well-liked leaders.

Mao ruled from 1949 – 1976.

Great Leap Forward (1958 – 1962) was Mao’s plan to industrialize China while maintaining the basic agricultural/pastoral structure of China. The “solution” was to have farmers create steel mills in their backyards. Millions died as not enough food was produced, steel mills caught fire and many other catastrophes. The plan backfires tremendously

Mao’s Cultural Revolution of 1966 continued for a few more years as a reaction to Mao realizing he was on the brink of losing power. Mao tried to turn frustration towards him into frustration towards the traditions of Chinese culture. Mao argued that his plan would have worked had it not been for Chinese traditions that stood in the way.

Mao mobilized peasants (Red Army) and together they tortured traditional artists, scholars, and professors, while they destroyed thousands of books, historical objects, and artworks (anything Confucian or Buddhist they could get their hands on).

Mao encouraged artists to create “art for the people” that would convey communist ideas in ways accessible to the masses. Realistic images of workers, soldiers, and peasants began to replace traditional ink/silk images of landscapes.

Liu Chunhua’s image was painted in 1969 in the middle of the Cultural Revolution. Liu Chunhua was a member of the Red Guard.

Social Realism

This work used socialist realism to portray Chairman Mao as a revolutionary leader committed to championing the common people. Some examples of European social realism are shown above..

 

Korean Art

Historical Context and Artistic Innovations: Korea

Three Kingdoms Period: Korean peninsula divided between Silla, Paekcho, and Koguryo kingdoms

• Adoption of Buddhism in 6^th century
• Interactions between Korea and China were quite common (sinification)
• Crowns, burial objects, and jewelry: commonly constructed using gold metallurgy
• Portrait styles adopted from China

(8) 196. Gold and Jade Crown. 

Korean (Three Kingdoms Period, Silla Kingdom).  5^th-6^th century.  Korean.

Learning Objective: Korean headdress

Themes:

Headdress
Status
Power
Funerary
Ceremony
Nature
Religion
Materials with significance

Museum: Gyeongiu National Museum in South Korea

Gold and Jade Crown is a metalwork object, worn on the forehead, that measures 1 foot and 4 inches. The crown is lavish with ornamentation and elongated branch-like protrusions from which tiny gold discs and jade ornaments are attached.

The crown required very delicate and precise hammering as gold is a soft metal and jade is a hard material.

Function

Works such as these were found in burials for royalty. Initially, historians believed this to be the sole purpose. Objects that were important in life were taken to the grave, but these crowns were also used in special and occasional ceremonial rites of the Silla royalty.

Silla used shamanistic practices in their ceremonies where Kings and Queens were significant players. The gold indicated the power of the wearer. A crown is also a visual marker of status.

Symbols and Meanings

Three tree-shaped vertical elements evoke a sacred tree that once stood. It is believed to be an axis-mundi. Jade ornaments symbolized ripe fruit hanging from the tree branches as fertility and abundance. The antlers symbolized the power and speed of a deer. It is a sacred animal in Korea.

Context

In the 5^th and 6^th centuries, Korea was divided into three kingdoms, with the Silla kingdom being the most powerful and wealthiest of all three.

Prior to the adoption of Buddhism, Koreans practiced shamanism. This is a type of nature worship which requires the expertise or mediation of a figure called a shaman who can facilitate communication between the gods and people. In shamanism gods control nature. Humans are at the mercy of nature. The shaman intervenes on behalf of the people.

The Glitter of Gold

Chinese emissaries described the kingdom as a country of gold. Silla kings began to associate with gold and use it to identify royalty.

Silla was particularly famous for its craftsmen and items created out of gold. Through collections unearthed in Silla tombs historians have determined that kings and queens lived in large royal palaces, and wore robes of pure silk embellished with gold, as well as belts and crowns of solid gold.

Jewelry was part of the ensemble with earrings, rings for every finger, and armloads of bracelets crafted in gold. Royalty sat down to lavish meals that were served in gold and silver vessels and plated on gold plates.

The earliest golden objects unearthed were in the Wolseng-ro Tomb in Gyeongju. It was constructed in the last quarter of the fourth century. Two large pendants were found made of pure gold. At the top are gold hoops, from which fall long chains, embellished with delicate pieces of gold. Historians believe these were hung from a headband on either side of the forehead.

Later, six royal mound tombs provided further insight into the lives of the Silla royals. Dating back to the early Silla period, between the first quarter of the 5^th to the first quarter of the 6^th century the tombs each contained a royal golden crown. Hwangnam Daechong, a tomb measuring 80 meters in diameter had a crown with a matching belt, necklaces, rings, earrings, and vessels all made from gold. The fact that royal deceased were buried with the gold objects shows the high regard the Silla people had for the precious metal.

Two Types of Crowns

Two types of crowns were discovered.

The first is the conical cap (magwan), a small hat worn over a topknot. Originally, these were made of birch wood and crafted into a cone shape. Conical caps were worn on the head and strapped below the chin. Fine silk fabric was placed over top, with precious metal objects attached. These crowns did not survive, but the ornamentation did, allowing for historians to reconstruct what the crowns would have looked like.

The southern mound at Hwangnam contained a magwan made of silver and gilt bronze. There were also decorative elements to adorn it including a gold winged object, measuring just over 16 inches high and gold rectangular plates with discs of gold circles hanging from wires. Each of the rectangles measure just over 3 inches each.  While nearby at the Geumgwachong Tomb or Gold Crown Tomb, a golden magwan crown was unearthed, measuring 7 inches high.

The second type of crown is the daewag or headband style from which vertical elements hang down. These crowns are made from thin gold sheets and lined with fabric, to provide the skin with comfort. In the early stages the daewag was made of a high purity gold with a minimum of decoration. Later the crowns became highly decorative but were crafted from lower purity gold.

Belts

Gold belts were another symbol of Silla royalty. These were crafted from:

• Leather bands
• Gold plaques
• Pendants

The plaques were linked together and contained engravings of dragons, phoenixes and palmettes. Heart shaped gold charms were attached to the plaques.

Pendants also held charms such as knives, tweezers, medicine bottles, fish, and jade pieces.

 More About Royalty: Queen Seondeok’s Reign in Silla Korea

Under the Reign of Korean’s First Female Sovereign Silla Experienced a Flourish of Arts and Science

The ancient Kingdom of Silla was ruled by a woman from 632 to 647 CE. Her name was Queen Seondeok, and she was Korea’s very first female sovereign.

The queen’s father King Jinpyeong ruled for an impressive 53 years between 579-632 CE. He had no male heir, and the crown was passed on to his daughter. When she took the throne, she also took the word wang or king—just like the queens in Egypt had before her.  Seondeok was the Silla’s 27^th ruler. She inherited a prosperous fortune. Compassionately her first objective was to help the poor in the state.

Seondeok was also a fighter. She refused to give up land the Silla owned. She sent a 10, 000-man army to rescue the famous general Kin Yu-Sin. He was being held by rival King Bojang of Gogurye for ransom.  The demand was for Seondeok to give up territory the Silla has taken. Seeing the fierce army, the king released the general immediately!

Silla’s neighbors were not without power. The queen had already established trading and cultural ties with the Tang Court of China. The two states formed an army. Yet, warring in Korea continued until 668 CE after the queen’s rule had ended.

Artistic Accomplishments

Cheomseongdae

During her time Buddhism grew increasingly popular.  The queen saw an extensive building program especially when it came to Buddhist temples. While these were made of wood and did not survive, examples of stone pagodas still do.

The most notable work is the granite built Cheomseongdae observatory in Gyeongju, the Silla capital. It stands 9 meters high. The blocks are large rectangles set in a circular formation, forming a bottle like shape.

There is a window with 12 layers of bricks below it and 12 layers of bricks above it. The sun’s rays are captured during the spring and summer equinoxes, given its south facing views.  It was initially thought that the building functioned as a sundial, as astronomy and astrology were important parts of Korean society that helped with agriculture. It also lent authority to rulers as the chosen ones.

Another theory is that Cheomseongdae was meant as a replica of Mount Sumeru, the holy Buddhist mountain. This would indicate the sight was a place to worship and pray. The female like form could also mean that it was built to represent the Ishtar/Inanna who was connected to the heavens. One final theory is that it was suppose to represent the Queen herself.

Hwangnyongsa Temple

 

Hwangnyongsa Temple is a Buddhist temple which translates into English as Temple of the Illustrious Dragon, also in Gyeongju. Myth has it that a yellow dragon was spotted at this exact location, symbolizing the defeat of all enemies of Silla.

The project began with the breaking of the ground by King Jinheung, in 553 CE. The site measured 280 by 280 meters, with a huge Buddha at a height of 4 meters. The queen added a nine-story pagoda for which she hired master architect Abiji from Baekje. It also included a massive bell. Everything was destroyed by the Mongols in 1238 CE, but the foundation remains for visitors to see.

Death of the Queen

Not everyone agreed Seondeok should rule. Fuming aristocrats thought the throne should now be granted to someone outside of the bloodline. A rebellion ensued, that was thwarted by general Kin Yu-Sin and the queen’s nephew.

She would later die of illness and was entombed within the sacred mountain of Nangsan, Gyeongju.

The Second Queen

After the rule of Queen Seondeok, her cousin Jindeok (r. 647-654 CE) took the throne. She would further help Silla dominate the Korean peninsula.

(8) 205. Portrait of Sin Sukju.

Imperial Bureau of Painting. Korean. 15^th century. Korean.

Learning Objective: Korean silk scroll

Themes:

Ideal man
Portrait
Cross-cultural
Politics
Appropriation
Status
Commemoration 

Museum: Goryeong Sin Family Collection in Korea

Portrait of Sin Sukju from the Imperial Bureau of Painting is a hanging scroll made from ink and color on silk. The work measures 5 feet 4 inches by 3 feet 6 inches.

In accordance with Korean portraiture conventions, court artists painted subjects in:

• Full-length view
• ¾ turn
• Only one ear showing
• With crisp angular lines
• Little to no modeling; mostly using lines to show folds of fabric or skin
• Highly controlled brushwork

Function

This hanging scroll was meant to be displayed. Silk is a sign of status.

Sin Sukju (1417-1475) is depicted as a “meritorious subject” and celebrated as Prime Minister. He was an official honored for his distinguished service at court and his loyalty to the king. These types of portraits were common for government workers.

These portraits were cherished by families and worshipped for generations. This is similar to Head of Roman Patrician with a focus on ancestral rituals.

Content

Sin Sukju is dressed in his official robes, with a black silk hat on his head.  He is shown as a Neoconfucian scholar. He sits with his hands folded neatly and concealed within his sleeves. Excessive fabric is a sign of wealth (think of Arnolfini Portrait!).

He wears a rank badge on his chest that was typically made of embroidered silk. This indicates the status of the official which ranged from emperor to local official. Images of birds identified rank. Sin Sukju’s badge shows a pair of peacocks amongst flowers and clouds.

Context

Sin Sukju was Prime Minister from 1461 – 1464, and again through 1471 – 1475.

The Imperial Bureau of Painting was trained to capture the likeness of sitters, while adhering to pictorial conventions for illustrating government members. Imperial Bureau was the government school of artists that standardized painted images. Since images were so standardized, artists likely specialized in one area such as the face, hands, or robe.

Sinification refers to the diffusion of Chinese culture to other regions. Koreans adopted not only Confucianism but also traditions of Chinese paintings. This was a sign of cross-culturation.

Notice the painting of a Chinese bureaucrat on the left

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