Byzantine Art

BYZANTINE ART

Theme:  “The Four Fs”

This theme focuses on the basic characteristics of Byzantine figural representation.  The “Four Fs” stand for formal, flat, frontal, and floating. The word “floating” refers to the ways the bodies in Byzantine mosaics and paintings seem to hover, appearing weightless.

Historical Context

Byzantine Art (527 – 1453)

In 324, Constantine I founded the city Constantinople on the site of the ancient city of Byzantium to serve as the new capital of the Roman Empire.

The 8^th and 9^th centuries brought the Iconoclastic Controversy.

In 1204, Western Crusaders conquered Constantinople. They were eventually expelled but took artwork with them to Western Europe.

In 1453, they were conquered by Ottomans. The Empire spoke Greek and practiced Orthodox Christianity. Religion spread throughout Eastern Europe. Justinian proclaimed Christianity to be the only lawful religion. Pagan cults had mostly died out.

Constantinople was a glittering, wealthy, opulent city. Emperor was the earthly vicar of Christ with spiritual authority. The Orthodox Church and Byzantine court mirrored the Kingdom of Heaven.

Artistic Innovations

Early Byzantine Art (527-730)

Almost all the works from this period were lost due to iconoclasts.

Iconoclastic Controversy (700 – 843)

Iconoclasm was the destruction of images used in religious worship. The worship of idols was considered sacrilegious. The emperor banned all image production and iconoclasts smashed all religious figural images.

Middle Byzantine Art (843 – 1204)

Iconoclasm was repealed.

Late Byzantine Art (1204-1453)

Most works commissioned from Byzantine church and state were luxury objects for the court. Painting specialized in icons, manuscripts, and mosaics, with a combination of a classical style and a more formal, flat medieval style.

Sculpture was smaller in scale and made mostly from ivories and precious metals.

Architecture was pendentive and squinch.

Byzantine Empire

Early Byzantine Art (527-730)

• Reign of Justinian I
• Expanded borders
• Codified Roman law
• Defined Christian dogma, Christian literature, Christian art
• Iconoclasm controversy in 8th and 9th centuries
• Many icons from Early Byzantine period lost

(3) 52. Hagia Sophia

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. Byzantine. 532-537 CE. Constantinople. Byzantine.

Learning Objective: Byzantine central/basilica church

Themes:

Religion
Architecture
Innovation
Appropriation
Place of worship
Power
Light
Rulers
Propaganda

Hagia Sophia, was built in Constantinople, Turkey, in what today is Istanbul.  The structure uniquely combines a basilica structure measuring 240 by 240 feet, with an enormous dome measuring 108 feet tall. The architecture was created using brick, ceramic elements, stone, and mosaic veneer.

Architectural Planning

The central plan has a hemispherical dome placed onto a square base. The basilica plan was created by adding a narthex and lengthening the building on one side so that it is no longer a square.

The dome was not made of concrete like the Romans typically designed. The Hagia Sophia architects used four pendentives to transfer the weight from the great dome to the piers beneath, rather than the walls.  Pendentives are curved triangle vaulting formed by the intersection of a dome, with supporting arches.

Spolia or repurposed marble columns from Rome were incorporated.

Letting the Light In

There are 40 closely set windows that were cut at the base of the dome. When viewed it appears that the dome is being supported by a radius of light. The windows were framed with highly polished mosaic pieces, lending to the quality of light.

Interior Decorative Elements

Imported marble with large, colorful, veins line the floors and walls, creating great movement and energy.

Stone that was not marble was once decorated in mosaic patterns of acanthus leaves, palm leaves and crosses. This would have heightened the opulence and added a reflective quality.

The History of the Space

Constantine built a church here that was burned down in a fire.  Justinian admired Constantine and felt drawn to their similarities. Both were Christian emperors. Justinian in fact was the greatest emperor of the Byzantine empire.

Justinian decided to rebuild the church after claiming to see the finished building appear to him in a dream. His biggest concern was building a fireproof church!

Hagia Sophia was a symbol of Byzantine superiority over the Pantheon and pagan Rome through art and culture.

The name of the church means Saint Sophia. The word Sophia wisdom or Church of Holy Wisdom. It was later converted to a mosque, in 1453 (appropriation) and the Ottoman conquest. Then, the minarets and calligraphic roundels were added.  The roundels say the names of Muhammad, Allah, and the close family members of Muhammad.

 Timelines in Focus

324: Constantine founded Constantinople as the new capital of Rome.

476: Fall of Western Rome and definite split of the two empires. Byzantines remain strong.

• Justinian, following the lead of Constantine, proclaimed Christianity to be the only lawful religion.
• Constantine’s Edict of Milan declared that Christianity was a tolerated religion
• Justinian expanded borders of his empire.
• Justinian defined Byzantine art, literature, Greek Orthodox dogma
• Architects were mathematicians. They were able to pull off the largest dome ever constructed at this time.

1453: Minarets were added by the Ottomans to be a mosque after the conquest by Sultan Mehmed II

About the Architects

Isidorus of Miletus was born in Miletus during the 6^th century. He was a scholar and an architect who founded an engineering school in the Byzantine Empire.

Anthemius of Tralles was a writer and architect, who taught geometry at the University of Constantine.

Both men had been students of the famous mathematician Proclus. Both had successful careers as architects, individually, before Emperor Justinian heard about them.

 

(3) 51.  San Vitale.

Byzantine. 526-547 CE. Byzantine.

Learning Objective: Byzantine central plan church

Themes:

Religion
Portrait
Rulers
Propaganda
Ideal man
Ideal woman
Politics
Architecture
Power
Cross-cultural
Male-female relationships

San Vitale is a church in Ravenna, Italy, made from marble and stone veneer. It is also known for its magnificent mosaics. The central plan is symbolic of unity, continuity,  and timelessness. The brick of the austere exterior was taken from ancient Roman (spolia) and repurposed here.

This is the surviving church from Justinian’s era that is virtually unchanged.

The Narthex

The Narthex, or entrance to the church was as far as non-baptized people could go. It has an odd angle, which has never been explained. Historians think it may have been an attempt to symbolically disorient the viewer and make them seek out the altar by re-orienting themselves. Another theory is that it may have been constructed in this manner to highlight the transition from the material world to the spiritual one.

Walking Inside

The interior is bright, illuminated, and opulent continuing in the  tradition of beautiful interior to symbolize a beautiful soul. The use of triple arcades references the trinity.

The church is centrally planned so that focus is on the center, instead of a basilica plan with the focus on the apse.  San Vitale consists of two concentric octagons. The smaller octagon inside, with a drum raises the dome higher to allow in light. The drum is mixed with windows in a kind of clerestory.

How do you take a circle shaped dome and place it on top of an octagon? It is done with squinches. This is simply a wedge that fits into corners of a space.

Capitals of columns are called impost blocks, or inverted pyramids. The Classical orders are left behind. This is a result of Christians turning away from pagan Greco-Roman precedents.

The bottom floor has an ambulatory or an aisle for walking around the church in a circular fashion. The second floor has a gallery and an ambulatory that was reserved for women.

The apse is extended slightly to one side. The alter was placed here so everyone could see the priest.

Interior of dome and squinches. The ceiling was painted in the 17^th and 18^th century.

Cross-cultural Influences

 San Vitale is a Byzantine church for the Greek Orthodox religion. While it shows Early Christian influence with new Christian iconography and culture, it also has a Roman influence, with a dome similar to the Pantheon.

Imagery

• Formal
• Flat
• Frontal
• Floating

Propaganda for Justinian

San Vitale was political propaganda for Justinian, to display his power in Ravenna, Italy. This newly conquered region was a place he has never visited. It displayed the opulence and wealth of Byzantines, and their leader. The church also imposed the Byzantine tradition of Greek Orthodoxy, in this area of Italy.

What is a Martyrium?

Martyrium is a shrine built over a place where a saint is martyred or buried. This is a martyrium to Saint Vitalis

Magnificent Mosaics 

Apse of San Vitale with Christ Between Angels and Saints

The figures in this mosaic are otherworldly. They exist in a heavenly realm. Landscapes are not naturalistic nor is 3D rendering.

The figures from left to right include:

• Saint Vitalis
• Angel
• Christ
• Angel
• Bishop Ecclesius.

Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifies universal dominion. He offers the crown of martyrdom to Saint Vitalis. Four Rivers of Paradise sit underneath him with rainbow clouds above. Extending a gold wreath of victory to Saint Vitalis, patron saint of the church, with the other hand he holds the book of Apocalypse.

Vitalis reaches for the crown with his hands covered in cloth, as is Byzantine court ceremony. He is a soldier, and this is signified by the boots he wears.  Bishop Ecclesius holds the model of the church.

Above the Altar

The lamb of God wears a halo as Christ is depicted as sacrificial lamb, surrounded by wreath of victory. This is the success of Christianity itself.

SUB-IMAGE 1: Justinian Panel 

This mosaic work is located on the north wall next to altar in the apse. It is formal, relating to religion and politics. Yet, classical naturalism has been left out of this work.

The images have a serious nature. The space is gold to show they are of a higher realm. This makes it look flat and the view is frontal. The images appear to be floating. Their feet are oddly angled, as if non-weigh bearing.

Function of this Mosaic 

The main theme of this mosaic is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history.  The prominent location, next to the altar, shows the importance of Justinian.  He has religious,  administrative, and  military authority.

What this Mosaic Shows the Viewer  

Justinian is shown participating in the Eucharist /communion ceremony. He is  holding the bread which has transubstantiated into the body of Christ. It is on a plate called paten that is used only for bread during Eucharist.

• Justinian stands at the center, represented as a priest-king.
• Halo shows the divine origin of his authority.
• He wears crown and purple robe, the symbol of divinity.
• Justinian divides the picture plane into two sides, as he embodies both Church and State.

The left side represents the state. Soldiers on far left are generic and lack individuality. They have shields with Chi-Rho, the first two letters of Christ’s name in Latin. Dressed in white with purple stripes are the men of the Imperial administration. The beardless figure is the court eunuch.  Figure on right is Belisarius.

The right side of the mosaic represents the Church. Featured here is Julius Argentius, the principal benefactor of the Church and Bishop Maximianus, probably because he played a role in the construction and supervision of church design.

Ambiguity exists in the positioning of Justinian and Maximianus. This overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, and he is central figure. Maximianus’s feet are lower on the picture plane and therefore actually closer to us. Additionally, he is named!

Which figure is more important, Justinian or Maximianus? This has been interpreted as a source of tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church. Justinian has never been to the church and Maximianus oversaw the work on the Mosaic. Was this his way of asserting his own power?

The clergy carry objects for Eucharist, including a censer to burn incense and a gospel book.

SUB-IMAGE 2: Theodora Panel  

This mosaic is positioned on the south wall to the apse and facing Justinian.  Theodora ruled as co-equal to Justinian. She was a powerful woman. This illustrates how both king and queen played an important role.

Theodora appears elaborately robed in purple, with jewelry and a bejewelled crown. This symbolizes the richness of the Byzantines. The halo does not represent her own divinity but that her authority is of divine origin. Here she carries a gold cup, having just participated in the same Eucharist ceremony.

Historical Context 

476 CE: A church was already being built here when the area was under Goth rule

536 CE: Ravenna now ruled by the Ostrogoths, and church construction began under Bishop Ecclesius.  

539 CE : Ravenna in Italy was conquered by Justinian’s general Belisarius.

• Ravenna enjoyed its greatest cultural and economic prosperity during Justinian’s rule
• Ravenna, thanks to its control by the Barbarians, believed Christ was the creation of God the Father and was therefore not an equal in the trinity.
• Justinian sent his general Belisarius there to capture this area and impose Greek Orthodoxy
• Justinian and Theodora never visited Ravenna.

547 CE: Bishop Maximianus completed the interior decoration and oversaw the mosaics.

• Byzantines promoted belief caesaropapism (Caesar over pope) – believing a single political ruler is the head of the church

(3) 54. Virgin (Theotokos) and Child Between Saints Theodore and George.

Byzantine. 6th or 7th century CE. Byzantine

Learning Objective: Byzantine icon

Themes:

Icon
Biblical
Religion
Family
Ideal woman
Cross-cultural
Devotional object
 

Museum: St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai, Egypt

This icon painting,  measuring  2 feet 3 inches by 1 foot 7 inches, Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George uses encaustic on wood. Encaustic is a pigment mixed with wax.  The work is formal and both religious and political in nature.

As is the norm in Byzantine icons, the figures are highly contoured, and the faces are modeled with light and shadow to show roundness. The figures are frontal and almost rigid, yet the angels do turn their heads. The two figures in the front are floating and do not support their weight.

The space is shallow, and background details are vague. There is however some spatial recession with shadows on the throne.

What is an Icon?

Icon is the Greek word for image. An icon painting is for personal devotion and worship. Icons were believed to be the religious figures depicted. The steady gaze of the images encouraged a personal connection for the worshipper.

The purpose is not to be visually accurate, but rather to convey religious meaning and facilitate a religious experience.

The Figures in the Icon Painting

 The Virgin (Theotokos) is the Greek title for mother of God. She is embodiment of support to Christ. Her body literally carried him, and she supports him now. Her deep blue outfit, with hood pulled over head is very typical of Byzantine art.

 

Saints Theodore on the left and George, on the right.  They are soldier/warrior saints and popular because they defended faith. Two angels gaze upward to the hand of God emerging from shaft of light.

Christ appears as an old man in a baby’s body to indicate he contained infinite wisdom.

Background History

 Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between  Saints Theodore and George  was discovered at St. Catherine’s Monastery in Mount Sinai in Egypt, built during reign of Justinian in Byzantine Empire. This is the place where God appeared to Moses. This is the oldest continuously used Christian monastery.

This work is based on Late Egyptian funerary portraiture during the Roman period.  Byzantines occupied Roman Egypt, which was affected by Pompeiian wall paintings.

Iconoclastic Controversy

During the 8^th and 9^th centuries Christians regard the devotion to icons as idolatry. This simply meant people were worshipping the objects, rather than worshipping to them or using them to guide their thoughts.

Icons became indispensable, personal mediums for spirituality and miracles were often ascribed to them. Many were fearful this was a relapse to pagan idolatry. As a direct result, icons were destroyed en masse. Today, very few survive. It is rare to find them.

(3) 50. Vienna Genesis

Byzantine. Early 6^th century. Byzantine.

Learning Objective: Byzantine illuminated manuscript

Themes:

Text and image
Biblical
Religion
Status
Human and divine
Materials with significance

Museum: Located in Vienna

Vienna Genesis is a Byzantine, illuminated manuscript on purple vellum, painted with tempera, gold, and silver.  It measures 12 inches by 9 inches. There is text, written in Greek on the top, with corresponding images below. Of the 192 pages only 48 survive. It is the earliest well-preserved manuscript with biblical scenes.

Illuminated refers to both the vibrancy of the colour as well as the enlightenment the viewer experiences while reading the text.

Vellum is calfskin. The reason calves were used was for the suppleness of the animal’s skin. Once slaughtered, the animal’s hide was soaked in lime water. Then the fur was removed and hung to dry.

The pages were originally purple, which was an expensive dye. The lettering was silver, but now is tarnished.

The Images

Images a use continuous narrative that bends upon itself. The figures are elongated . There is a skewed perspective. The use of space is not realistic.  All these factors are typical of the time.

First Book of the Old Testament

This manuscript is the first book of the Old Testament,  the Book of Genesis. It was made for prayer and to preserve Biblical stories.

Before the 15^th century and the invention of printing, books were handmade and therefore expensive. This, along with the materials used the create Vienna Genesis, indicates a wealthy patron. The work would have been viewed as a symbol of status.

The Stories in the Book

SUB-IMAGE 1: Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well (Genesis 24: 15-61)

Rebecca leaves the city of Nahor to fetch water from a well, where she meets Eliezer collecting water for his camels. Eliezer is asked by Abraham to help his son Isaac find a wife.

Rebecca is matched with Isaac. The couple have children, Esau, and Jacob.

This is a story about God intervening to ensure a sound marriage for Abraham’s son.

SUB-IMAGE 2: Jacob Wrestling the Angel ( Genesis 32: 22-31)

Jacob, dressed in brown, leads his family across a bridge, over a river, on the back of a donkey.

Jacob becomes separated from his family. He and a man have a disagreement and they fight violently. Jacob’s hip is injured. The man is  really an angel in disguise, testing Jacob’s stamina and perseverance. An important transformation occurs as the angle blesses Jacob. The angle changes Jacob’s name to Israel and tells him he will be a patriarch.

Classical Elements

The artist uses classical elements in the book with illustration.  In the story of Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well,  the river is personified by a female semi-nude figure, just like depictions of classical goddesses.

In Jacob Wrestling the Angel, the bridge the family crosses has Roman columns and arches.

The drawings show drapery in the fabric with a sense of a figure underneath, like classical sculpturers.