Asian Art Gallery Review 7 & 8

Asian Art Gallery Review 7 & 8

In this gallery, you will achieve an understanding of art and architecture of West, Central, South, East, and Southeast Asia. How is art and architecture evidence of cross-cultural connections and influences? How are religious beliefs and practices represented within art and architecture? How does patronage influence artistic and architectural production?

You will explore the cultural distinction of Asia

• the religions of Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism
• the influence of these religions and social hierarchy on art and architecture.

Gallery Objectives

Different cultural and religious values are reflected in the art and architecture of a culture and dictate how sacred space is used. The beliefs of Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism necessitated different characteristics in the sacred architecture and art. This is evidenced in how deities are represented in the art and the architectural designs. Trade transmitted both religious and artistic influence throughout Asia, and political entities utilized art and architecture to represent religious support of leadership.

Monuments of Faith

• distinguish architectural elements of mosques
• recognize the connection between religious needs and religious function of architecture

Sacred Connections

Think about your community and the buildings it contains. Can you visualize political structures like city hall or the courthouse? Do they contain common features like columns or large, ascending staircases? Think about places of worship in your community. Do they contain common features?

The use of architecture for religious needs is a common thread that connects cultures, despite time or geography. There are elements that are specific to religion or culture, like the ark in Jewish synagogues, the cross in Christian cathedrals, and the mihrab in Muslim mosques.

The definition of Islam is “submission to the one God,” and its followers are referred to as Muslim, or “those who submit.”

Islam rose in Arabia early in the 7th century and eventually brought the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Its extensive advance was not only the result of military conquests, but also of the nature of the Islamic faith and its appeal to millions of converts. This advance resulted in altering sacred architecture in regions that were conquered to accommodate the needs of Muslim worshipers.

The art and architecture of the Muslims represents the different techniques and ideas from diverse cultures that converted to Islam, and the impact of Islam was reflected in the art and architecture of other cultures.

Art and architecture can have a sacred function.

The Pillars of Islam

There are commonalities between Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Islam incorporates Old Testament teachings, ethical standards, and rejection of idol worship. All three beliefs segment after the Old Testament.

Muslims worship without a hierarchy of rabbis, priests, or saints acting as intercessors. Muhammad was believed to be God’s messenger and is considered the Final Prophet in a line that includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. He began to receive revelations of God through the archangel Gabriel and was persecuted by Meccan leaders who disagreed with his message.

In 622 C.E., he fled the city of Mecca for a desert oasis called Medina, or “City of the Prophet.” This exodus was called the hijra, or emigration, and is considered the beginning of the Islamic religion. Eight years later, Muhammad returned to Mecca with an army of 10,000, took control of the city, and converted the population to Islam.

Muhammad destroyed all the idols and preserved the Kaaba, the symbolic center of the Islamic world. He died in Medina in 632 C.E.

Muslims live according to the Koran, Islam’s sacred book.

This book was arranged by the Muslim ruler, Uthman, and contains the collected revelations communicated through Muhammad during his lifetime. It has 114 surahs, or chapters, divided into verses.

The duties of the Islamic faith include the Five Pillars of Islam:

Shahadah: Assert that there is only one God and that Muhammad is his messenger.

Salat: Pray five times a day facing Mecca (where The Kaaba is located).

Zakah: Give alms to the poor.

Sawm: Fast during the month of Ramadan.

Hajj: Make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime (if possible).

The Five Pillars guide Muslims in the commitment and practice of Islam, and the reward for the faithful is paradise. Islam also features a union of religious and secular authority, joining religious and political leadership in one ruler. This practice continued after Muhammad in the form of caliphs, or successors, who took charge of the community’s political and spiritual matters.

Is the Center of the World a Cube?

The Kaaba is a cubical, textile-draped shrine said to have been built for God by Abraham and Ishmael. It had been inundated with pagan idols before Muhammad conquered Mecca. After the battle at Mecca, Muhammad removed the idols, preserved the structure, and dedicated it to Allah.

The stripping of the idols resulted in the concept of aniconism, avoiding figural imagery and graven images, in art. Islamic art that is created for religious purposes does not contain figural imagery. Islamic art and architecture take on both sacred and secular function. Aniconism has, therefore, resulted in variances in the imagery of sacred and secular art and architecture.

Religious architecture includes both mosques and commemorative monuments, but in comparison to religious buildings from Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, and Christianity, there is an evident lack of graven images. Manuscripts or objects containing sacred text can contain calligraphy, illumination, or geometric and plant decoration, but cannot have the representation of figures. Due to the religious purpose of the Islamic commemorative monuments, The Kaaba and the Dome of the Rock, there is no figural imagery.

The Kaaba represents the center of the Islamic world, is the place where all Muslim prayer is directed, and is the destination of the Islamic pilgrimage, or hajj.

This monument is covered with a silk curtain that is embroidered with calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread. The use of expensive materials is often a representation of paradise in Muslim art and architecture. The curtain lacks figural imagery and is replaced annually during the Hajj pilgrimage.

Every year during the month of pilgrimage, Muslims from all over the world travel to Mecca. This occurs from the eighth to the twelfth of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar, and as it is a lunar calendar, it is 11 days shorter than the common Gregorian calendar used as standard today.

The worshipers move around, or circumambulate, the Kaaba seven times in a counterclockwise direction. This act is believed to show the unity of the believers in worship of Allah. Worshipers rise from the lowest of the seven steps, or stages, of the soul to the highest.

The Kaaba has been modified and expanded extensively throughout its history to fix damage that had occurred, enlarge the area, or replace the cover. The last alterations took place in the 1950s by the Saudi Arabian government to accommodate the large number of pilgrims who come on the Hajj.

The Dome of the Rock

It is the first great Islamic monument and the third most holy site in Islam. It was commissioned as an architectural tribute to the triumph of Islam by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik between 687 and 692 C.E. It is built on the Noble Enclosure or “The Foundation Stone,” a rock that is the site of the first and second Jewish temples.

The site is also significant as it is the presumed location of Adam’s grave, the place where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac, and the location where Muhammad began his journey to heaven. The coming of a new religion to Jerusalem was marked by building on a site holy to both the Jewish and Christian faiths. The Dome of the Rock is the first architectural display of Islam’s belief: that it completed the prophecies of both Judaism and Christianity and supersedes them. It is a statement of the idea that Islam is the completion of the worshiper’s connection with God.

With a central-plan structure, the Dome of the Rock imitates the form of early Christian and Byzantine martyria. The 75-foot double-shelled dome is made of wood, and then covered with gold, a valuable material used as a representation of paradise. It is supported by alternating piers and columns. This creates concentric aisles that allow worshipers to circumambulate the rock in the center, again demonstrating the oneness of the Muslims in worship.

Calligraphy

• summarize the impact of Islamic art on outlying cultures and regions
• explain the role of calligraphy in religious artworks, luxury objects, and architecture
• compare Islamic architecture with architecture of other cultures  

Calligraphy was a prominent art form, particularly in Islamic art in West Asia where beautiful forms were created to transmit sacred texts. Calligraphy is found on architecture, decorative arts objects, and ceramic tiles, as well as in manuscripts written on paper, cloth, or vellum.

At one end of the carpet is an inscription of poetry in three lines. It begins with:

Except for thy threshold, there is no refuge for me in all the world.
Except for this door there is no resting-place for my head.
The work of the slave of the portal, Maqsud Kashani.

Masqud was a court official in charge of producing the carpets, while the word slave, as used by Masqud may have been his way of promoting himself as a humble servant. Additionally in the Persian language, the word door can mean shrine or royal court.

The fourth line provides the date the carpet was created AH 946 based of the Muslim calendar. This begins in 620 CE when Muhammed fled from Mecca to Medina. There AH 946 translates into 1539-49 CE.

The Reverence of Calligraphy in Islamic Art

Islamic culture values poetry and oral tradition. They believed that the message of God was revealed through the prophet Muhammad, so words are the priority of the religion. Unlike Christianity it does not have a use for iconic images.

The beautiful writings of calligraphy were considered the highest art. It was used not only to spread the words of the Qur’an but also decorative images as well.

Prophet Muhammad is related to have said: “The first thing God created was the pen.”

Islamic calligraphy includes Arabic Calligraphy, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy. It developed from two major styles: Kufic, the oldest form of Arabic script and Naskh, traditionally used for more informal purposes. It is important to note that there are variations on each style, as well as regional differences.

Folio from a Qur’an was created with ink, color, and gold on parchment paper. The paper was costly and made from sheep or goat skin.  The work measures 12 inches wide.

The word folio simply means a page in a book. Dimensions of the page were calculated carefully before cutting the parchment.

The page uses calligraphy or writing that is intentionally decorative to indicate status and significance. Each page contains only nine lines of calligraphy. Calligraphic style used is known as Kufic. This method employed strokes of uniform thickness, short straight vertical lines, and long horizontal lines.

Early Korans would only feature three to five lines per page to meet the need for visual clarity, as there were times one Koran would be shared by several readers. Since the copies were hand-produced and were finely crafted, they were expensive and rare. The red marks function as pronunciation guides, and the chapter title, page numbers, geometric designs, and vegetal imagery are embedded in the golden ornament in the middle of the page. Gold is significant, as it is symbolic of paradise in Islamic culture.

More Kufic and Naskh Images

To be granted a certificate Islamic calligraphers went through stages of intensive training.

The center of calligraphy was originally Bagdad, before spreading to India and Spain.

 

Luxury Objects

The Court of Gayumars, folio from Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama. Sultan Muhammad. c. 1522–1525 C.E. Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper.

Calligraphy was used to embellish luxury objects. These smaller-scale luxury arts feature an immense collection of manuscript paintings, ceramics, and metalwork and are examples of both the range and quality of Islamic skill. The Shahnama, or Book of Kings, is a Persian national epic poem by Firdawsi (904–1025 C.E.) that recounts the history of Iran from creation until the Muslim conquest. This poem is paired with manuscript paintings in the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp. There are 258 illustrations by many artists in this book that was presented as a gift to Selim II, who commissioned the Selimiye Mosque.

This specific page, Court of Gayumars, was painted by Sultan Muhammad. A non-religious work, it uses figural imagery to depict Gayumars, the legendary first king of Iran, as he presides over his court from his mountain throne.

The image is placed off-center as if it is floating, and delicate figures of the court, animals, trees, rocks, and sky populate a lush landscape. This enhances the sense of lightness and airiness, giving the illustration a heavenly appearance and a reference to paradise. The animals, trees, and rocks support the text in the Shahnama, which states that wild beasts became instantly tame in the presence of the Gayumars.

The poem, in calligraphy, encompasses the top and bottom of the painting. The manuscript became part of a private collection in the West and was eventually split and sold as individual pages. This is evidence of the Western collector’s view that each page was an independent work of art.

Metalwork

Islamic metalwork, which encompassed metal plaques, vessels, arms, armor, and sculpture, was considered one of the finest decorative art forms of the medieval world, extending well beyond West Asia. Islamic metalsmiths would ornament the surface of vessels with scrolls, interlacing designs, calligraphic inscriptions, and human and animal figures. As these vessels were not religious in nature, the aniconism of the Islamic religion does not apply.

The Basin by Muhammad ibn al-Zain is made of brass and inlaid with gold and silver. The practice of inlaid brass work was common from the mid-12th century forward due to a shortage of silver. Basins similar to this were used for washing hands at official political ceremonies, and this specific basin may have been fashioned for a Mamluk sultan for use in his palace.

Basin (Baptistère de St. Louis). Muhammad ibn al-Zain. c. 1320–1340 C.E. Brass inlaid with gold and silver.

 

The skill of the work denotes the generosity of the patron, but the lack of a specific inscription means there is no evidence of whom the basin was created for. The artist, Muhammad ibn al-Zain, signed the basin six times. This was uncommon, and the exact reason al-Zain did this is unknown.

The surface is decorated with three bands whose backgrounds feature stylized vegetal forms of inlaid silver. The upper and lower bands depict running animals, and the center band shows Mamluk hunters and Mongol enemies. Both the inside and underside are decorated with figures and animals. The basin was acquired by the French and referred to as the Baptistère de St. Louis. It was used in the baptismal rites of newborns of the French royal family as early as the 17th century and is an example of both the status and widespread influence of Islamic art.

The Mughals–a Little Islamic… And a Little European too

The Mughals were the most successful of the many Islamic groups that established themselves in India beginning in the 12th century, and they presided over a cosmopolitan court with refined tastes. Foreign ambassadors and merchants often visited, and the emperors admired Persian art and sought out European luxury goods. This resulted in artworks and architecture that had both European and Islamic influence, an outcome of cross-fertilization.

Jahangir was the fourth Mughal emperor and ruled from 1605 until 1627. Jahangir commissioned a painting from the artist Bichitr, who portrayed his patron in both a European and Islamic style. The painting Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings features a scroll-like border with intricate vegetal patterns.

Islamic influence is seen in the intricate vegetal patterns framing the painting, and the calligraphy is in two pairs of cartouches both at the top and the bottom of the painting. The intricate vegetal patterns are continued in the lower portion of the painting. Jahangir is shown sitting on top of an hourglass throne, with four figures to the left. The top figure is a Muslim Sufi Shaykh, or mystic saint, who is being presented with a book from Jahangir, below him is a Turkish sultan, then a full European style portrait of King James I of England, and then below him a representation of the artist himself.

Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings. Bichitr. c. 1620 C.E. Watercolor, gold, and ink on paper.

The allegorical style of the painting is evidence of the European influence of style. The tower of figures represents the social hierarchy in the emperor’s eyes.

The inscription “although to all appearances kings stand before him, Jahangir looks inwardly toward the dervishes” attests that the emperor looks to Islamic holy men for guidance.

By placing himself in the lowest place in the tower, Bichitr recognizes that he is lowest in status. He also portrays himself giving Jahangir a gift, displaying his reverence for the emperor. The hourglass symbolizes that Jahangir sits above time. The side profile view of the faces is evidence of European influence, but King James I of England’s face is looking directly at the painter, as it was copied from a painting given as a gift to Jahangir. Jahangir’s head is encircled in a radiant halo that combines a sun and a white crescent moon. This halo is a visual display of Jahangir’s title of honor and evidence of European and Byzantine influence. This, in addition to the scrollwork and calligraphy, is also evidence of Islam influence, specifically from the Shahnama.

Calligraphy and Buddhism

In the Buddhism of India, writing was always encouraged not only by monks and nuns, but the regular, everyday person who was Buddhist. This involved handwriting Buddhist scripture.

Buddhist Calligraphy refers to the lettering art that draws subject from Buddhist literature. The artists are Buddhists and secular individuals.

Then there is calligraphy of Buddhists. This form of calligraphy does not necessarily present words from Buddhism.

In Chinese calligraphy, more than half of the famous works from ancient China are based on Buddhist subjects or created by Buddhists. These works can be classified into:

• Manuscripts
• Inscriptions
• Engraving Scripts

It is further classified by author:

• Calligraphy of Buddhists
• Calligraphy of Secular Artists

Manuscripts

Long before printing presses, Chinese Buddhist masters copied all scriptures into manuscripts by hand. The work starts with a title, main section containing spaces between paragraphs and a postscript. The result is simplistic yet elegant.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions were also part of Buddhist calligraphy. One area of prominence was grottoes art in famous Buddhist temple grottoes.

Such Chinese Buddhist temple grottoes include:

• Yungang
• Longmen
• Dunhuang

These inscriptions were used for models for later calligraphers.

Other inscriptions can be found in mountains and stupas.

Zen Buddhism

Calligraphic style of the Buddhist sect known as Zen in Japan and Cha’an in China included:

• Bokuseki, or ink trace in Japanese.
• Chinese (Wade-Giles romanization) Mo-chi, or (Pinyin)Moji,

These forms of calligraphy were a direct result of Cha’an Buddhism crossing into Japan during the 12^th and 13^th century. During the Moromachi period (1338-1573) Bokuseki was a part of a distinguished monks accomplishments. Monks admired for this include:  Musō Soseki (1275–1351), Sesson Yūbai (1290–1346), and Tesshū Tokusai (fl. 1342–66).

 

Ani-Aniconism

• recognize the representation of the divine in art of South, East, and Southeast Asia
• contrast sacred spaces related to Hinduism and Buddhism
• examine religious burial practices in South, East, and Southeast Asia

Hindu Art and Architecture

Similar to calligraphy in Islam, mantras are written ornately on Hindu art and architecture. The first symbol in the Tibetan mantra pictured is Om. As Hindus worship, mantras are recited that bring the deity into the image. Om is used at the end of a prayer as an invitation to the deity.

The belief that the deity is present is not taken lightly, and the image will not be removed from the temple. Individuals pray and make offerings like food, flowers, water, oil, dancing, or ritual sacrifices to the deity, supporting their belief that the deity is physically present in the image and, therefore, must be cared for.

This  photo is an example of calligraphy in a Tibetan mantra.

Tibetan mantra: Om Mani Padme Hūṃ

Hindu Temples, Break It Down

From the 10th through the 14th centuries, India was largely a cluster of small kingdoms and different areas that developed highly individualized styles. The forms for temples in the north and south remained standard, although each building reflected the creator’s personal aesthetic and spiritual sensibility.

Image: Shikara (tower) in a northern-style temple, carved from base to tip with colorful figures and reliefs.

In the northern-style temple, the tower is called a shikara. It has a slightly convex shape and tapers at the top, where it is crowned by a flattened and fluted stone called an amalaka or fruit.At the very top, a finial connects the earthly realm below to the celestial above. Temples are symbolic in form, based on the mandala that symbolically connects the heavens and earth.

Example of a shikara in a northern-style temple, ca. 12th and 13th century C.E., Vithoba temple complex, Pandharpur, India.

The temples modeled in 3D the calligraphy pattern of mandalas: square, base, circular center with colorful depicyions. Buddhism and Hinduism transitionned naturally from calligraphy and geometric drawings to architecture patterns .

The Vishnu Temple at Deogarh is one of the earliest temples in this northern style. The doorway, visible in this image, demonstrates the importance of the concept of the portal.

This is the passage from the ordinary world of the flesh to a place of spirit. Stepping over the threshold is a symbolic act of purification.

 Buddhism Iconism-Aniconism

“To the first of his followers, and the tradition associated with Theravada Buddhism and figures like the great Emperor Ashoka, the Buddha was a man, not a God. He was a teacher, not a savior. To this day the Theravada tradition prevails in parts of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Thailand.

To those who, a few hundred years later, formed the Mahayana School, Buddha was a savior and often a god—a god concerned with man’s sorrows above all else. The Mahayana form of Buddhism is in Tibet, Mongolia, Vietnam, Korea, China, and Japan. The historical Buddha is Siddhartha Gautama.

The aniconic mode of representation is found in the Indian cultural sphere as well as in China, but it produced distinct modes of expression according to the different historical settings. Early Indian Buddhism (Sanchi Stupa) developed various aniconic types within the scope of narrative pictures that never show the Buddha in human form. Instead, his presence was indicated by means of symbols or by emblematic representations as well as by his “non-image.”

In contrast, the Chinese aniconic phase refrained from any pictorial representation and only carved the words of the Buddha in Chinese calligraphy. The restriction to words on the Chinese side has the advantage that it provides written texts that can be analyzed, although the texts themselves never fail to suggest the limitations of language in the same way that suggest the inadequateness of images, as we shall see. Early Indian Buddhism, it seems, knew other ways to avoid the limitations of language: without leaving the confines of the pictorial, it found impressive ways to give form to the invisible.

A record left by the thirteenth-century monk Dharmasvamin of his visit to Bodh Gaya is especially interesting considering the problem of aniconism. Like earlier pilgrims to the sacred site, Dharmasvamin did not find the living Buddha at Bodh Gaya. Instead, what he described is not unlike what we see in some of the so-called aniconic reliefs, for he said that “inside the courtyard stood the empty throne of Sakyamuni . . . which was worshipped, and an eternal offering lamp was kept in front of it.”

George N. Roerich, trans., Biography of Dharmasvamin, A Tibetan Monk Pilgrim (Patna: K. R Jayaswal Research Institute, 1959), 71.

Sanchi Stupa Early Aniconic representations of Buddha: “the non-image”

At the Northern gate of “stupa one” in Sanchi 1st century CE

Sculptural friezes at important early Buddhist stupas like Sanchi depict scenes from the life of the Buddha, with the Buddha represented in aniconic form, using certain fixed symbols. On the Northern gate of “stupa one” in Sanchi the Buddha’s body is represented by the Body tree, a crowning lotus rosette on a column like structure, a stupa, the Buddha’s footprints with the Wheel of the Law (dharma chakra).

Each symbol represents a pivotal event in Buddha’s life: a lotus (or elephant holding a lotus before birth) representing his birth, a fig tree or throne representing his enlightenment that he reached after meditating under the tree, a wheel, a flaming column with a Wheel of the Law for his first teaching/sermon (the Four Noble Truths), and a stupa (funerary mound) for his bodily demise.  In some cases he is also represented by a pair of footprints.

The icon (corporeal body) of the Buddha in India and China: Gandhara style

Buddhism along the Silk Road Gandharan Buddha 2nd century

Gandhara is the ancient name of a region in northwest Pakistan bounded on the west by the Hindu Kush Mountain range and to the north by the foothills of the Himalayas. In 330 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered this region and familiarized its artists with the classical Greek sculpture.

Starting about 50 B.C., Kushan era, the sea trade driven by monsoons increased. Thus, merchants from Rome and the Middle East passed through Gandhara on their way to Central Asia and China. Gandharan control of the high mountain passes vital to this international commerce made the region wealthy. The resulting cosmopolitan elites became some of the most powerful Buddhist patrons in all of South Asia.

Gandhara’s art combines (syncretism) local characteristics with elements derived from both Indian and western (Greek, Roman) cultures.

After the 1st century C.E., with the development of Mahayana Buddhism we begin to see many images of the Buddha in human or anthropomorphic form. These new, iconic images of the Buddha were particularly popular in the region of Gandhara and in Māthura, south of New Delhi. They were depictions of the Buddha’s enlightenment, i.e. bodhisattvas. Many of the concepts characteristic of Mahayana Buddhism—the later form of Buddhism—appear to have developed in Gandhara.

These anthropomorphic images usher in a new phase of Buddhist art in which artists convey meaning through the depiction of special bodily marks (lakshanas) and hand gestures (mudras) of the Buddha.

In this anthropomorphic image of the Buddha’s enlightenment, the artist depicts Prince Siddhartha seated on a throne, surrounded by the demon Mara and his army, who attempted—unsuccessfully—to thwart Prince Siddhartha’s attainment of enlightenment. At the moment of enlightenment, the prince reaches his right hand towards the ground in a gesture mudra in which his hand is oriented towards earth, calling the earth to witness his spiritual awakening. In doing so he becomes the Buddha.

Gandhara Buddha

• the body is hidden with heavy cloak echoing a Roman toga; its sharp folds echoing Greek Parthenon draping styles form concentric curves centered on the right shoulder.
• the face is elongated, the chin is quite prominent, and the corners of the relatively thin mouth are slightly sunken.
• the eyes are narrow under a heavy lid, gazing downward in compassion to the world
• the wavy Greek-like hair is gathered into a topknot symbolic of wisdom
• a lightly incised circle, called an urna, appears between the eyes. The urna was an identifying mark of the Buddha’s divine status and ability to see beyond our realm.
• Buddha has long earlobes that recall the heavy royal earrings he once wore
• the second-century Bodhisattva Maitreya had a musculature markedly western/Greek

The bodily attributes displayed in Buddhist sculpture varied only slightly

The Buddha is shown in his human shape because of his last incarnation in the human world, but particular bodily marks are witness to his transcendence of the human realm. After enlightenment, the historical prince Siddhartha Gautama acquired various marks (lakshana) that identify him as the Buddha.

The importance of the bodily attributes for any Buddha image in India and China can hardly be overestimated. Descriptions of these are formalized in the Buddhist canon, specifying 32 primary and 80 secondary superhuman attributes. For the most part, however, the local lists are homogenous.

The major bodily attributes of a Buddha are witness to his completion of awakening and are, therefore, the only adequate way to represent him in human form. The Buddha’s body is dignified, well proportioned, and extremely tall, with its slender and long limbs.  There is a top hair bump, and the hair is fashioned into tiny snail stylized curls. Another mark is the urna between the eyebrows.

The Buddha’s earlobes are extended in reference to the heavy jewelry he wore previously as a prince. He wears a simple monk’s robe, in keeping with his spiritual purpose, and sits in a lotus position.

Fingers have all the same length, or special markings on the palms and on the soles of the feet. All parts of the Buddha’s body, even features that cannot be represented, like his voice, are determined by his being enlightened.

Often the face and the uncovered parts of the body were gilded, representing the light emitting from the Enlightened One’s body. His skin was said to be of a golden hue, emitting light from every single pore.

Other important attributes mentioned in the texts pertain to the meanings of his hands position, the mudras, which evoke ideas during Buddhist meditation or rituals:

• right hand over right knee (calling Earth as a witness to Enlightenment)
• right hand held up with palm out (symbolizing giving reassurance, “no fear”)
• hands held at chest with fingers turning invisible wheel (setting in motion the “wheel of the doctrine”—that is, preaching)
• hands placed on the lap, left hand on right with fingers fully stretched palms facing upwards (“meditation mudra”)

Mathura was a sacred place for the followers of Jainism who sculpted their deities. The Mathura Buddhas are related to the earlier Indian yakṣa figures (male nature deity). This is a direct continuation of the old Indian art of Sanchi with few Gandharan elements facial types will establish the traits of the Buddha iconography:

• full of energy with broad shoulders, swelling chest
• if standing the legs are firmly planted and spaced apart.

Mudras:

• left hand palm facing down in “calling earth as witness” mudra
• often the right hand forms a mudra of “fearlessness” representing protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of fear; the left arm akimbo or resting on the thigh

Warmer Climatic Conditions:

• Buddha’s torso is dressed with a transparent monk’s robe
• a higher fluidity of the clothing
• drapery is closely molding the body giving the illusion of nudity.
• details tend to be less realistic, and more symbolic
• radiant inner calm and stillness, the products of supreme wisdom
• earlier the shaven head and the topknot of the head indicated by a tiered spiral

Later Buddhas had shell-like hair curls, which became the standard representation throughout the Buddhist world. These Buddhas have ornate halos around the Buddha’s head, while in Gandharan art the aureole is plain.

• garments with lotus flower (symbol of purity) design
• the presence of either the lion throne or the lotus throne.
• the sitting Buddha images naturalistic pose with legs crossed
• represented as powerful with broad shoulders and open eyes
• more warmer climate adaptations: the right shoulder bare,

Standing Buddhas tend to display characteristics and attitudes seen in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara:

• the clothing covers both shoulders, with symmetric folds
• the left hand holds the gown of the Buddha while the other hand (Roman toga style)
• the folds in the clothing are more typical of the Gandharan style

A remarkable parallel can be drawn with the icon of Christ. The portrayal of his physical features follows the notion of a “delineation,” which places every human being into a coded system of particular features that establish a distinctive identity. The Patriarchs of the Byzantine stated that “The icon of a man is not inscribed according to nature, but according to position.” (Barber 2002). In other words, there was no doubt about what the historical, incarnated Christ “looked like,” because there was only one way in which he could have manifested physically in the world. Thus “an icon has to be seen as a living eyewitness of actual events.” (Barber 2002).

Natural and Spiritual

• recognize symbolism and iconography of the natural and spiritual world in art of South, East, and Southeast Asia
• evaluate cross-cultural impact of religious and political themes

The iconographic symbolism, natural motifs, and themes of human’s connection with both the natural and spirit world in Buddhism and Shindoism saturated non-religious art and reflected the continued impact from Silk Route and trade.

China

The foundation of Chinese culture is based on both Daoism and Confucianism. Predating this are philosophies and historical texts that are based around nature and the cosmos. This later influenced Chinese Buddhism.

Neo-Confucianism in Art

Self − Qi + Li = Oneness

Daoism and Confucianism were both prevalent ethical, philosophical, and religious systems in China when Buddhism was introduced. Neo-Confucianism merges the three philosophies and teaches that the universe consists of two interacting forces know as li, or idea, and qi, or matter, “The individual’s goal is to rid the qi of impurities through education and self-cultivation so that the li may realize its oneness with the Great Ultimate.”

Essence

Art, like monument landscape painting, expressed Neo-Confucian ideas visually. The artist’s goal was to paint the essence of the landscape, not to reproduce the appearance of it. The artist was required to understand all of the aspects of the li of the landscape and, therefore, would express the desire for the spiritual communion with nature that was the key to enlightenment.

In Travelers by Streams and Mountains, Fan Kuan relies on essence, as opposed to depiction, to convey the size of the landscape, embracing Neo-Confucian ideas. Gaps between the tree distances function like pauses between the varying views.

Scale in the piece emphasizes the sense of vastness and space. The small trees and shrubs are dwarfed in light of the size of the mountain.

The painting, presenting universal creation in its totality, is an orderly statement reflecting the artist’s worldview. The essence of the landscape in Travelers by Streams and Mountains, including the sense of vastness and space, supported viewers as they meditated while seeking spiritual communion with nature and, therefore, seeking enlightenment.

Silk was both a popular and valuable material, and it was able to be made in large pieces to support large, monument landscape paintings like Travelers by Streams and Mountains. At over seven feet high, the piece differs from the Japanese hand scrolls—small-scale secular paintings designed to be appreciated in private settings. These pieces differ in not only size but also subject. The hand scroll Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace is an account of a battle, unlike the natural mountain view in Travelers by Streams and Mountains.

Korea

Buddhism came to Korea from China in the 4th century C.E. and carried with it symbolic themes of the natural and spirit world. Tombs of the Silla kingdom contained artworks representative of the wealth and power of its rulers.

The Gold and jade crown is made of sheet gold, embossed along the edges, and is an example of the high level of skill among the artists in the Silla kingdom. This technique may have come from China.

Gold rivets and wires secure the pieces of jade along the crown and horn-like projections. Jade is significant as it was both a symbol of the wealthy and elite, but it was also believed that it possessed magical qualities that could protect the dead. The projections are representative of tree and antler forms and are believed to symbolize life and supernatural power, suggesting the connection of nature to the supernatural world.

Japan

The beauty of the changing seasons has always been celebrated by the people of Japan. Each season brings its own celebrations and festivals. This is also part of Shinto, Japan’s native belief system and indigenous religion. It has been preserved in and has been part of the everyday fabric of Japanese life.

Shrine Shinto had a close relationship to the Imperial royal family and was both a religion and a state. Sect Shinto originated around the 19^th century and has 13 major sects organized by the founder or systematizer. Folk Shinto is based on Japanese folk beliefs. All three are interrelate.

Poetry and visual arts are part of Shinto. Kokinshu (A Collection of Poems Ancient and Modern) is the first known works of Japanese poetry, and nature is the inspiration. Shinto paintings of the Heian period show Spring blossoms Autumnal leaves and winter scenes.

The work above, from the Metropolitan Museum is entitled Birds and Flowers of the Four Seasons. It was painted in the late 16^th century during the Momoyama period (1573-1615), in Japan. The work is a pair of six-panel folding screens with ink, color, gold, and gold leaf. The story moves from right to left.

Here are some detailed close ups:

 

Many paintings depict the transitioning of seasons. A theme in both Shinto and Buddhist art is the theme of beauty and brevity. For a more minute view of seasonal changes flowering plants and flowers become painting compositions.

Decorative arts were adorned in the same way. Think ceramics, lacquerware and even kimonos.

Techniques

In Japan, painting of landscape also incorporated varying techniques. In White and Red Plum Blossoms, Ogata Korin used tarashikomi, which literally means “dripping in.”

Tarashikomi involves applying a second layer of paint before the first is dry. This results in a dripping form that creates fine details like ripples in water or leaves and is specifically used in White and Red Plum Blossoms to depict the tree trunks.

This painting, like Travelers by Streams and Mountains, relies on essence, as opposed to depiction, to convey the size of the landscape. The stream cuts through the center, giving the impression of expansion. The trees offer asymmetrical views. The white plum tree on the left is mostly outside of the screen, while the red plum tree on the right is mostly within the screen

Gardens

Wet and dry gardens in Japan echo the connection of the natural and spirit world. They are designed to create both a sense of integration between the observer and nature and an atmosphere in which meditation can take place.

Wet gardens contain stones, vegetation, and water, while dry gardens contain stones, vegetation, and representations of water. Water and stone represent opposites that complement and complete each other in Buddhist symbolism. The walled dry gardens at Ryoan-ji consist of 15 arranged stones on a raked bed of white sand, which is representative of water and purity.

The stones are carefully arranged in five groups so that the entire garden cannot be seen from the porch, and only 14 stones can be viewed from any other angle. The gardens were viewed as puzzles, or lessons, to promote study and meditation. Those who come to the garden to meditate believe that they will be able to see the 15th stone when they reach enlightenment.

Scholars disagree about the stones’ meanings: some theorize that the stones represent islands in a stream or possibly peaks of mountains, others state that they have no meaning and are just an abstract composition that functions to incite meditation. Gazing at dramatic natural scenery was considered highly beneficial to the human spirit and helpful in gaining enlightenment

The foundation of Chinese culture is based on both Daoism and Confucianism. Predating this are philosophies and historical texts that are based around nature and the cosmos. This later influenced Chinese Buddhism.

Not surprisingly, these holy men were drawn to the mountains to establish temples. Mountains also appear in art as early as the Han Dynasty as a looming background within a variety of themes and idealized settings.

Landscape paintings would become its own genre by the late Tang Dynasty. This would also become a major theme for poets.

Plants and Animals

Animals, both real and imagined also made their way into Chinese art such as serpents, bovines, cicadas, dragons, and phoenixes, along with vegetation.

Dragons are symbolic of male energy, while phoenixes are symbolic of female energy and illustrate the connection of the natural and spirit world in Chinese culture.

Painted designs and pictures on Chinese porcelain exemplify this. Porcelain resembles jade and, when fired, would have a translucent, shiny surface. It was, therefore, highly regarded like jade in Chinese culture.

In Daoism tigers represent the ying and dragons the yang. They were also considered a balance to one another as the tiger is from the real world and the dragon is from the imagined. The tigers appear in Buddhism as well, such as jataka tales with other Buddhist figures. The Chinese dragon was reimagined from Naga the Indian deity or god of snakes.

Animals are vividly portrayed in art from the ancient Near East and appear as part of ever day life. They appear in flocks, as pack animals for work and travel, in hunting scenes, and ridden in battle. Horses were of upmost importance as both transportation and warfare. These scenes appear on painted pottery, stone that has been carved and in metal works.

Wild animals were portrayed as powerful. Lions guarded royal doorways during the Urak period. Other creatures such as vultures, foxes, and bulls were also prominently featured. Wings, claws, horns, and animals fighting were all elements that provoked thoughts of danger.

Many of these great animals were linked to gods such as the storm god Adad as the bull. Other gods appeared winged.

Domesticated animals were popular accessories in the Near East. In fact, many were first domesticated here including dogs, cats, goats, sheep, and donkeys. Camels would come later in the first century A.D. These animals appeared in decorative arts and in amulets showing that they were considered lucky and protective

Animals also appeared in art as a sign of fertility, featured in pairs, families and mothers caring for there young. Animals appearing in repetitive sequencing symbolize abundance.

Animals were also used ritualistically and were sacrificed to the gods and part of ceremonial hunts. Through this association, animals in art were part of temples, as too were the vessels used in such ceremonies.

Works crafted from ivory became increasingly sought after and were a sign of the elite. Vast collections have been found in Neo-Assyrian palaces.

(3) 57. Pyxis of al-Mughira

Umayyad. 968 CE. Islamic.

Learning Objective: Islamic ivory decorative arts

Themes:

Iconography
Decorative arts
Utilitarian
Text and image
Power
Rulers
Status
Materials with significance
Animals in art

Museum: Louvre

Pyxis of al-Mughira is an example of decorative arts that is both beautiful and utilitarian. Made of  solid ivory from the tusk of an elephant, the work stands 6 inches tall.  Ivory was expensive, durable, smooth, elegant, and easily carved, making it a highly desirable material. This pyxis was made from the famous workshop of Madinat al-Zahra

Islamic art is not always aniconic, meaning it does not use animal or human form. It is religiously aniconic only. In non-religious or secular and for private use, representational images can be used.

Horror vacui: literally means “fear of emptiness” and refers to artwork that is completely full of imagery. This decorative work is an example of this. The work is dense, overcrowded, and intricate, with no space for recession.

Politically Utilitarian

The Pyxis of al-Mughira was a gift to 18-year-old al-Mughira, son of a caliph, as a coming of age present. A pyxis is cylindrical box with a separate lid. The one has a utilitarian purpose, as it was used for cosmetics. Royal men wore makeup, particularly eye makeup, as a sign of status.

Ivory objects were given to royalty on important occasions. Think marriage, birth, and coming of age.

Such works expresses the political authority of the Spanish Umayyads.

The Visuals

This work is decorated with four eight-lobed medallions. This is symbolism of the number eight. It represents the eight levels of Paradise. There are carved falconers, griffons, peacocks, birds, and animals to be hunted.

Royal iconography includes courtly figures and lute players. Falcons were a symbol of Umayyad legitimacy and power. Date palm trees may allude to the lost Umayyad lands of the Middle East.

The two lions symbolizing the Umayyads.

The inscription reads: “God’s blessing, favors, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira, son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him.”

 

Power and Symbolism in Nature

The power and symbolism of nature is portrayed and perceived differently by different audiences. In Under the Wave off Kanagawa, nature is seen as dangerous and antagonistic.

Mt. Fuji, which is usually depicted as large and imposing, is small and dwarfed in the background compared to the wave. This change in the presentation of Mt. Fuji symbolizes the power of nature and its ability to conquer. Even a large and imposing mountain is dwarfed in the face of nature. Two boats with faceless passengers are about to be toppled by a huge, dragon claw-like wave. This demonstrates the dominance of nature, that it can overpower even the largest mountains and humankind.

(8) 211.Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), also known as The Great Wave.

Katsushika Hokusai. Japanese.  1830-1833. Series: Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. Japanese.

Learning Objective: Japanese woodblock print

Themes:

Landscape
Man vs. nature
Print
Cross-cultural

Museum: Metropolitan Museum in NYC

Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), is an artwork by Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai. This is a polychrome woodblock print created with ink and color on paper. Part of the Series: Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji it measures 10 by 14 inches.

Focus

Under the Wave Off Kanagawa is one of the most popular woodblock prints in the world. Being a famous Japanese work, it is also known as The Great Wave. Influenced by Dutch art, Katsushika Hokusai made this print as a part of the larger series titled Thirty-six views of Mount Fuji.

Not only was it reproduced innumerable times, but also it became a part of several modern artists’ assemblage practice, either through distorting or recreating an extended picture.

To represent a common wave, the image is also a part of the WhatsApp emoji list.

Although it is a realistic depiction, it employs optical illusion to illustrate the representation of Mount Fuji. It is essential to notice the same while being stunned by the magnanimity of the superseding wave on the left.

Content

Under The Wave off Kanagawa is a Japanese seascape Ukiyo-e print. Comprising several waves, large and tiny, it depicts Mount Fuji, which apparently alludes to the shape of the wave. Evoking a sense of fear and excitement, the interplay of the larger wave at the left, looming over the boatmen in three boats, is exceptional. The boatmen grip the planks tightly to save them from drowning against the encroaching big wave. At the same time, the dramatic variation in the angle of the boats on the waves develops a realistic representation.

The color palette is subtle and complacent. On the top left, the inscription mentions the name of the artist along with the studio. As it is a print, it was reproduced innumerable times, which eventually paved the way for popularity throughout the world.

The Great Wave is a part of the series, which depicted Mount Fuji from various perspectives and compositions. Mount Fuji, at a distance, germinates the sense of perspective that Japanese artists were privy to. With emotive turbulence and an interesting visual play, The Great Wave stands at a junction of being one of the normative works of art. The cresting wave also highlights the idea of transitory time, as it is about to recede in the vast ocean. Moreover, visually, it appears like it will engulf everything that comes in its way, men, beings, and the highest mountain of Japan, Mount Fuji.

The apparent symbolism points out the Zen approach through the teachings of Buddhism. The boatmen show a sense of preparedness in the face of chaos and impending destruction. In addition, the Ukiyo-e print represents the contrasting nature of several aspects like a deal between man and nature, natural elements of sky and water, among other attributes. Overall, it is a material idea of a Zen philosophical term called yin and yang, the two opposites.

Function

Mount Fuji serves dichotomous reason in the making of several prints by Hokusai. Not only is it a sacred mountain in Japanese culture, but also with increased tourism, the market demanded the images of the peak. Purchased as souvenirs, they were bought by townspeople who visited the city to climb the mountain as a pilgrimage. Fortunately, The Great Wave was reproduced more than 3000 times during that time. Hence, the primary purpose of the print was commerce, in which the aesthetic sensibility subverted the existing identity of the ukiyo-e technique.

Ukioy-e print techniques require common and inexpensive materials. It comprises surfaces of the block of wood, inks, and paper.

Hokusai has explicitly represented the abstract emotions of fear, excitement against natural forces. Such moments are transitory and tend to stop in time like the large cresting wave over the boats. However, while the large wave symbolizes power, the boats and the men tell us about courage in the face of timid times. The emotional response of the men is quite evident by their pose of laying on the boat planks. They are ready to be drowned or saved by the big wave crashing overhead.

Tradition

Under the Wave off Kanagawa is an Ukiyo-e woodblock print, which was popular during the Edo period of Japan. Generally, they depicted everyday scenes in an utter simplistic rendering. They also showed middle-class women during their routine life.

Some of the Ukiyo-e prints of courtesan quarters are an impeccable collection of erotica. The term Ukiyo-e means the floating world, which metaphorically states the idea of impermanence and transitory aspects. Ukiyo-e prints were recognized by their emphasis on line and usage of bright hues.

In Ukiyo-e, the woodblock is carved using an engraver. For each color to be printed, a new block is utilized. After the blocks are ready, they are spread with inks and placed under the printing setup. The paper is placed, and the prints are rolled under the pressure. Each block with a specific color must be aligned to have a composed and accurate depiction. Technically, they were used only to create images of courtesans. However, Hokusai altered this course by using the technique for landscape prints.

In addition to the Ukiyo-e woodblock print technique, the painting discloses the influence of the Dutch on Japanese and Chinese art. Dutch were the first to render landscapes and seascapes in their artworks. At the same time, the Dutch artworks are known for their precise lines, low horizon, and utility of Prussian blue. All these elements were transferred in the Hokusai practice, which is evidently seen in The Great Wave.

The Artist and the Art

Under the Wave off Kanagawa was created as one of the thirty-six prints by Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai. Born in 1760 in Edo, which is now known as Tokyo, Hokusai discovered western prints, which came to Japan through Dutch citizens.

These prints, which emphasize perspective, influenced Hokusai’s prints. He also used shades of blue, which were prevalent in western prints. Moreover, Hokusai was also interested in experimenting with the visual play of contrasting aspects and elements. As seen in The Great Wave, the magnanimity of the large wave is balanced by the distant, in perspective, the image of Mount Fuji.

Setting

After the Meiji restoration, Japan opened trade and cultural exchange with the world, which first only happened at Nagasaki. The onset of communication with the western countries exposed a variety of Japanese art and culture to European artists.

The woodblock prints were in vogue in countries like France, among others. Many other Japanese products caught the attention of the local market as well as European artists like Claude Monet and Van Gogh, which defined the term Japonisme.

Since 1640, Japan was totally shut from the world, while sparsely interacting with China and Holland. However, with the Meiji restoration in the 1850s, the trade was forcefully opened by an American naval commodore, Matthew C. Perry. Remarkably, Hokusai works were also exhibited at the International Exposition of Paris in 1867, marking the first exposure of Japanese art to the world.

Political Emphasis

Neo-Confucianism also had political emphasis. Families emphasized loyalty to the king as part of loyalty to the family, and this was echoed in artworks. The Portrait of Sin Sukju was a propagandistic painting on silk that demonstrated Sin Sukju as a powerful prime minister in Korea. It also contrasts the vegetal and landscape views in Travelers among Mountains and Streams by using figural imagery, depicting Sin Power and Authority

Power and Authority

Power and authority were demonstrated by patrons through the sculptures of Buddha in both the Longmen caves and the Daibutsuden temple and in in the Todai-ji complex. Artwork and architecture is used to support government and political structure.

The Forbidden City in Beijing, China is an imperial palace compound and served not only as the home of emperors and their household but as the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government. Planned according to traditional Chinese principles, the city is walled and laid out on a rectangular grid with evenly spaced streets.

The balance and symmetry of the plan of the Forbidden City reflects ancient Chinese beliefs about the harmony of the universe and emphasize the emperor’s role as the Son of Heaven, whose duty was to maintain the cosmic order from his throne in the middle of the world. The monumental nature of the stone, marble, and brick connect with the demonstration of power and authority. This provides a distinct contrast when compared to Sukju without any surroundings.

(8) 206. Forbidden City.

Ming Dynasty. 15^th century. CE and later.

Learning Objective: Chinese palace

Themes:

Domestic
Politics
Power
Propaganda
Man vs. nature
Public
Entryways
Appropriation
Cross-cultural
Status
Architecture

Forbidden City located in Beijing, China is a stunning Chinese Palace made of stone masonry, marble, brick, wood, and ceramic tile. It sits in the center of the city on 178 acres.

Most of the building is timber and brick, with sloping rooflines and glazed roof tiles. The emphasis is on traditional craftsmanship through the support of Chinese laborers. Tile roofs curve upward to allow light in and keep rain out.

The Significance of Numbers

Extensive use of the number 3 and multiples of 3 are used throughout. There are three tiered roofs, and the staircases have 9 steps.

• Number 3 is associated with harmony between yin and yang
• Number 9 is associated with divinity of emperor

The Meaning of Color

The use of color in the Forbidden City also has meaning. These are the four main colors.

• Red represents the sun.
• Yellow represents the earth.
• Blue represents the Heavens.
• White is a symbol of purity.

 SUB-IMAGE 5 Floorplan

The courtyard style residence uses a geometric organization of space that is aligned with the cardinal directions.

Outer court represented Earth

• Pointed towards the South.
• Belonged to realm of state affairs and only men had access to its spaces.
• Included: emperor’s formal reception halls, places for religious rituals and state ceremonies.
• Hall of Supreme Harmony represented central focus.

Inner court represented Heaven

• Pointed towards the North
• Private space
• Eastern and Western sides reserved for retired emperor and empress dowager
• Also included Buddhist and Daoist temples building during Ming Dynasty

Symbolism

The symbolism shows the relationship between Heaven and Earth. Emperor is the Son of Heaven and can mediate both worlds.

Power is conveyed visually and there is a spatial representation of power. This shows the emperor’s power over laws and regulations since he can regulate and reorganize nature.

The architects followed ideal cosmic order and social hierarchy in Confucianism.

Function

The complex was to showcase Yongle’s magnificence during turbulent years after the overthrow of his nephew. It was a visual assertion of imperial power with ceremonial space, ritual space and living space.

It was named the Forbidden Palace because only royal court could enter.

The complex was a political and ritual center for China for 500+ years. It was a place of power and propaganda that legitimized rulers and became visual evidence for the Mandate of Heaven.

 

SUB-IMAGE 1 North Gate (Gate of Divine Might)

Here are some key points about the North Gate:

• Walls are 30 feet high to keep people out
• Designed to withstand cannons
• Gate from which troops would often leave
• 3 openings: middle one was reserved for the emperor only
• Heavily guarded day and night

 

SUB-IMAGE 2 Tiananmen Gate (Front Gate) (Gate of Heavenly Peace)

This gate has been destroyed and rebuilt several times.

There are Five entryways:

• The largest in the center was used as passage for Ming and Qing emperors.
• The side ones are smaller and were used for officials.

The double-eaved roof is guarded by two pairs of Ming stone lions.

Mao Zedong

Today the gate is characterized by a giant framed portrait of Mao Zedong weighing 1.5 tons. Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949.

There are two placards:

• Left: Long Live the People’s Republic of China
• Right: Long Live the Great Unity of the World’s Peoples

The phrases have significant meaning as “Long Live” was reserved for Emperors of China. But afterward it was available to common people because Mao had liberated it…just like Forbidden City!

In 1989, three dissidents attacked the portrait with eggs during the Tiananmen Square protests. They were sent to prison for 17 years (released 2006).

SUB-IMAGE 3 Hall of Supreme Harmony

The Emperor’s seat is in here and was meant for grand ceremonies such as enthronements and weddings. From here, the emperor could establish cosmic order and mediate between both worlds. This is the middle of the site.

• 9 main bays wide and 9 dragons inside (9 is a special number)
• Bureaucrats and officials would gather in front of the gate at 3 am waiting for the emperor to walk by at 5am.

 

SUB-IMAGE 4 Palace of Tranquility and Longevity

The Northeastern section was a complex built by the Qianlong Emperor in anticipation of his retirement in the 18^th century. He planned to retire and abdicate, then settle down in modest quarters here, along with his major art collection.

This part of the complex is called the Studio of Exhaustion from Diligent Service and this room is the theater room. The layout mirrors the arrangement of the Forbidden City.

The finest craftsmen of the day spent five years building just this palace. He never spent a night here.

In the 1920s, the palace was chained shut and largely forgotten. It has now been restored to what was imagined it would have been like.

If he didn’t sleep here, what did he do here?

There were gardens, banquet rooms, prayer halls, an opera house, and a theater room. It was a place to meditate, write poetry, and enjoy company of concubines.

It was a simple rectangular room with translucent embroidered scenes, jade-inlaid wall hangings and Chinese carved decoration. There were also panoramic murals painted on silk, wisteria painted on ceilings, along with magpies flying over the tiled rooves of the palace. This was a blend of traditional Chinese painting with the Western use of perspective and optical illusion (trompe l’oeil). This was a testament to the emperor’s patronage of Giuseppe Castiglione, an Italian artist who was paid to come in and paint.

The small pavilion was equipped with a stage and surrounded with bamboo fence.

Context

The Ming in Ming Dynasty means brilliant. It is meant to be a brilliant return to the past.

The construction of the Forbidden City was the result of a scandalous coup plotted by Zhu Di (soon to be Yongle emperor). Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu emperor. When Hongwu died in 1398, his first son was named next emperor. But when he died it was the first son’s child who became emperor (Jianwen Emperor).

Jianwen Emperor began executing his uncles, to remove them as threats. This angered Zhu Di who overthrew him and established himself as Yongle Emperor (Yongle means perpetual happiness). To solidify his power, the Yongle emperor moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing and began building a new palace. He needed to show that he had the Mandate of Heaven, to display power and legitimacy and to protect himself.

The Qing Dynasty continue to live and rule here.  The last occupant was Puyi who was last emperor and was expelled by Chinese nationalists. Later it was liberated by Mao as a symbol of dynastic overthrow and the new Communist state of China.

Idealism + Politics = Propaganda

The propagandistic properties of artwork also demonstrate power and authority, and the power of governments to regulate artwork. In 1949, Mao Zhedong came to power in China and encouraged artists to create art that conveyed Communist ideas in methods that were accessible to the masses and the new Communist state of China.

The painting Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan is an example of the multitude of realistic oil paintings of workers, soldiers, and peasants that resulted from his encouragement. These paintings replaced the traditional ink paintings of natural landscapes largely due to the strict regulation of artistic production in 1966.

At this time, the Chinese government pushed a cultural revolution and sought to modernize itself by destroying anything that resembled tradition.

Many traditional artists were humiliated and tortured, and their artworks destroyed. Younger artists created works that would be distributed by the government.

Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan became one of the most popular images of the Cultural Revolution in China.