ART AND INFLUENCE OF RELIGION
ICONS OF FAITH
Petra Redux
The city of Petra was the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom until 106 C.E., when Arabia was annexed by Emperor Trajan and absorbed into the Roman Empire. Petra flourished under Roman rule and continued to be the capital of the region. Petra is a unique city that consists of pink hue rock-cut architecture, and its many caves and façades are sculpted from the soft rock on the sides of cliffs.
A commercial city, Petra had experienced a large influx of cultural influence through trade routes and influence from Egyptian, Roman, and Ancient Near Eastern cultures. The Treasury and Great Temple, like the Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut, are carved in situ in the side of a cliff.
Petra, Jordan: Treasury.
Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.
reek and Roman influence are reflected in relief sculpture and Roman Corinthian-inspired columns used in the façade of the Treasury at Petra. While the façade of the Treasury is inspired by and uses Roman and Classical Greek conventions, the architect intentionally deviates by altering the width of the columns and using the conventions as ornamentation only. The Great Temple at Petra has relief images of mythical animals similar to those used in the Babylonian and Persian empires.
Detail of Corinthian capital
Treasury detail. Petra, Jordan: Great Temple. | Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 B.C.E.–100 C.E. Cut rock.
Temple detail. Petra, Jordan: Great Temple.
A Closer Look
The Great Temple at Petra is a sacred precinct on the southern citadel hill, likely in an effort of the Nabateans to imitate Greek and Roman city centers. The temple is dedicated to the principal deity of Petra, Dushara, who is unique to Petra and paralleled with Zeus after Greek and Roman influence.
As worshipers enter the complex, they are surrounded by triple colonnades on the east and west side planned similarly to the Generic Greek (Peripteral) Temple Plan. Inside the colonnades is a lower temenos, which leads to the forecourt and the pronaos.
Petra’s plan deviates from the traditional Generic Greek (Peripteral) Temple Plan.
Instead of a cells, there is a small theater or bouleuterion. This leads to the possibility that the temple functioned as a large palace and assembly hall.
Plan. Petra, Jordan: Great Temple.
Generic Greek (Peripteral) Temple Plan
Enter Christianity
The middle of the 3rd century C.E. was an age of great social, economic, and military disarray in the Roman Empire. The reign of each emperor was usually brief. Rome once again regained a semblance of order under the leadership of Diocletian, who was declared emperor in 284 C.E. Diocletian wisely decided to share power with his potential rivals by establishing a tetrarchy.
Constantine, one of the junior tetrarchs, disrupted the tetrarchic system by invading Italy and defeating rival tetrarch Maxentius at the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 C.E. This allowed him to take control of the Western half of the Roman Empire.
Constantine enacted many military, financial, administrative, and social reforms that strengthened the Western half, including the Edict of Milan in 313 C.E. This edict supported Christians in the Roman Empire, so that they no longer faced persecution. In fact, the emperor and some members of the Roman elite became the Christian church’s chief supporters and patrons. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to claim conversion to Christianity.
There were already Christians in the 1st century C.E., but art with Christian themes did not emerge until about 190 C.E. and was created during a period of intermittent persecution. This art reflects both the beliefs of the growing Christian communities and their adaptation of existing Roman artistic styles.
Portraits of the four tetrarchs.
Head. Colossus of Constantine. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Ca. 312-315 C.E.
Head. Colossus of Constantine. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Ca. 312-315 C.E. Another shot.
Foot. Colossus of Constantine. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Ca. 312-315 C.E.
Biblical Knowledge
Art history is a pictorial document of cultural and religious events. It happened, it was illustrated, so now it can be studied to figure out what people used to do, where they came from, and most importantly, why.
To understand many Early Christian works of art, you need some Biblical knowledge.
Christians adopted the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament, adding a New Testament that told of the life of Jesus, the earliest days of the Christian church, and the ultimate triumph of God in the final book of the Bible, Revelation.
Although Jesus and the earliest disciples were Jewish, most of his subsequent followers were gentiles. They included narratives from both the Hebrew Bible and their own Greco-Roman culture in the earliest Christian art, as various traditions intersect.
Book of Gospels.
Art, Death, and Catacombs
The Etruscans used elaborate tombs and mausoleums within larger necropoleis to bury their dead, Jews and Christians used catacombs.
The earliest Christian imagery in the Roman catacombs dates from about 200 C.E. The catacombs in Rome were cut out of a soft rock called tufa, and the walls were lined with loculi where bodies might be placed. Loculi line the walls in the gallery of the Catacomb of Priscilla in Rome.
The catacombs are believed to be named after the wife of a Roman consul. She converted to Christianity and as a result was sentenced to death. Originally, the loculi would have been covered with plaques inscribed with information about those buried and sometimes with simple drawings.
Catacombs of Priscilla.
The Wealthy
Wealthier families usually had an entire chamber for their burial space, with marble sarcophagi to hold the bodies. Complex narratives were designed for the sarcophagi of wealthy patrons. The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus combines the Judeo-Christian narrative with the deceased’s identity as a member of the Roman senatorial class. The style of the sarcophagus represents a new classicizing trend in the 4th century that departs from the harsh tetrarchic style of the late 3rd century. The front of the sarcophagus is composed of two registers, each subdivided by columns into sections that depict various scenes from the Old and New Testaments.
Cubicula. Catacombs of Priscilla.
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.
Religious Narratives
Religious narratives in the catacombs portray more than text could. Common motifs represent significant moments or testaments of the faith of the deceased’s life.
Good Shepherd
In many cases, Christians and Jews adopted and adapted imagery from the surrounding Roman culture for their own purposes. The motif of the good shepherd was adapted by Christians from images of shepherds popular in the surrounding Roman culture.
In the catacombs of Christians and in churches, this shepherd image was appropriated to represent Jesus, the “Good Shepherd” who gave his life for his sheep.
Christ as the Good Shepherd. Catacomb of Priscilla. ca. 4th century C.E, Rome. Fresco
Orant Figure
Early Christian artists appropriated the orant figure, who raises hands in prayer, from the Roman culture to represent Christian devotees. The female orant figure is positioned between two other representations of her life.
In her marriage to the left and with a child to the right. This centralization of the orant figure emphasizes her conversion as a significant life event, like her marriage and the birth of her children.
Orant (Donna Velata). Catacomb of Priscilla.
Devine Deliverance
In some cases, painters created simple narrative images drawn from the Christian Old and New Testaments to decorate the catacombs and other settings. Dominant were references to the miracles of Jesus or scenes in which faithful figures experienced divine deliverance.
For instance, the story of Shadrack, Meshack, and Abednego, found in Daniel 3 of the Old Testament, was popular in this period. They would not bow down before the idol of the Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar and were thrown into a fiery furnace as punishment but saved from destruction by God.
Three Youths in the furnace of Nebuchadnezzar.
In this catacomb painting, the three youths raise their arms in an orant gesture. Certainly, the theme of avoiding idolatry resonated in a culture full of such idols.
During the 3rd century, Christians found themselves in a position whereby refusing to participate in the imperial cult risked death. This led to the portrayal of deliverance from death. The prayers for the dead often referenced God’s deliverance of the three Hebrew youths and other figures as a paradigm for the ultimate deliverance of those who were buried in the catacombs.
Religious Storytelling
Despite Jesus’s earliest followers being Jewish, Christians interpret events in the Hebrew Bible to have their fullest meaning in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus and in the subsequent history of the Christian church. Therefore, events drawn from the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament, are often contextualized and interpreted in Christian contexts as types, or patterns, that foreshadow events in the life of Jesus.
This typological means narratives would be depicted in Jewish and Christian contexts with very different meanings.
The story of the prophet Jonah is shown in Early Christian art in the ceiling decoration of the Catacomb of Petrus and Marcellinus.
The ceiling painting, divided by red bands against a white ground, is reminiscent of domestic painting in Rome during this period. The disc in the center is a medallion, and the semicircular areas on the wall below are lunettes.
The Good Shepherd symbolizes Jesus, with the motif of the lambs repeated in the lunettes below. We see three of the four phases from the narrative of Jonah surrounding. Jonah is shown thrown overboard, swallowed by a whale, spit up by the whale after three days in its belly, and finally reclining under a gourd tree.
Good Shepard and Jonah Narrative
Notice that Jonah emerges from the whale spreading his hands in prayer for deliverance in a way that echoes the surrounding orant figures and representations of Jesus as he departs the tomb.
Jesus compared himself to Jonah because he was in the tomb for three days, just as Jonah had been in the whale three days.
A similar mosaic from the San Vitale is of Justinian I, a Byzantinian emperor, and his attendants. Identifiers of his imperial power are in his clothing. He wears purple with a golden tableion, a richly jeweled crown, and a pendant broach.
Justinian holds the bowl containing the unleavened bread that was used in the Holy Communion and has a halo around his head. Though this is an important combination of religion and government, emperors of Constantinople were not considered gods or deified upon their deaths, which was considered idolatry in Christianity, as were emperors in Ancient Rome.
Justinian was not a high priest, as Roman consuls were. The high priest in Constantinople was the archbishop.
Justinian is portrayed as the largest figure, representative of his importance.
Justinian mosaic.
Constantinople Was Byzantium
The modern-day city of Istanbul, Turkey, was once referred to as Byzantium. It later became consecrated as Constantinople in May of 330 C.E. and was named after the Roman emperor Constantine, who made it the capitol of the Eastern Empire. Like Rome, it was governed by Roman law, had seven hills, and provided free entertainment and bread to its citizens.
The capital of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire was different from its Western sister-city; everyone spoke Greek, and their holy books and educational systems were in Greek.
Constantinople was a Christian society. Muslims and Jews existed within its framework, but the emperor, as well as the church’s patriarch and most of its citizens, were Christian in their faith.
A section of the ancient walls of Constantinople, Turkey. Stone.
Byzantine Art
The art and architecture of Byzantium was dominated by Christianity and is classified: early, middle, and late.
There are three major influences in Byzantine art:
Christian: A concern for spiritual imagery, as opposed to naturalistic ones.
Antique: Byzantines were proud of their Classical heritage and often looked back to Classical Greece and Rome.
Cosmopolitan: Constantinople stood on a crossroads between the Christian West and the Islamic East. Persia had great influence on Byzantine art.
Christ Pantocrater.
Early Architecture: Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy Wisdom, was the largest church in Christendom for a millennium. It was commissioned by Justinian I between 532 and 537 C.E.
It was built by two architects, Anthemios of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. They were mathematicians who had never created anything of this scale before.
Completed, Hagia Sophia combines the longitudinal plan of a basilica with the vertical orientation that would eventually characterize most Byzantine churches.
Plan for Hagia Sophia.
The use of numerical arrangements reflected Christian ideas:
- 3 for the Trinity
- 5 for the wounds of Christ
- 12 for the Twelve Apostles.
At the east and west ends are half-circles, culminating in semi-domes (with five windows), each of which has three smaller semi-domes (with five windows), culminating in three apses. The north and south ends have five arches along the side aisles and seven arches in the galleries above, with 12 windows in the lunettes. The windows themselves are in two rows: one of seven, and one of five.
Early Byzantine churches, like Hagia Sophia, are simple on the outside. However, inside Hagia Sophia, the viewer is transported by the church’s majesty. Marbles of every color—some shipped from as far as Egypt—form the pillars, walls, and floors. Halls echo with the sound of choirs.
Hagia Sophia looks very different today than it did in the past. It retains its massive dome, but large buttresses and four minarets were added when the church was converted to a mosque by the Ottoman Turks with the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 C.E.
During the day, the 40 windows at the dome’s base make it look as though it is floating on light. At night, the light of thousands of candles gives the same impression to viewers looking at the dome from the outside.
The builders could incorporate so many windows into the dome because they used pendentives to shift the weight from the dome to piers, instead of walls. Because the walls do not support the dome, they could be pierced by many windows.
The use of light provides Hagia Sophia with an otherworldly, spiritual characteristic of Byzantine art.
Hagia Sophia.
Interior. Hagia Sophia.
Interior Dome. Hagia Sophia.
Early Architecture: San Vitale
The church of San Vitale was dedicated in the port town of Ravenna a decade after Hagia Sophia was built in 547 C.E. This is not a Western-style church, despite being in Italy, because Justinian’s armies had recently reconquered the region.
Like the plan of Hagia Sophia, San Vitale shows two concentric octagons, with the inner one rising above the outer one. In the central space, eight columned arches separate eight piers. The ambulatory and gallery above it are interrupted by a cross-vaulted chancel that precedes the apse.
With all this symmetry, the asymmetrical narthex is unexpected and gives the church its signature look.
The sanctuary is covered with images and symbols that express the idea of Christ’s redemption of humanity and the reenactment the Lord’s Supper.
The celebration of Mass occurred on the lower level, and those in attendance witnessed the Mass processional from the upper balconies. This pulled the viewers into the action of the Mass.
Floor plan. San Vitale.
San Vitale
Mosaics: something old, something new
Byzantine mosaics have features that are both a continuation of and a break with the ancient Mediterranean world. Mosaics take some characteristics, and they leave some behind. The frame around the mosaic is ancient. Intricate clothing is contemporary.
Theodora and her Attendants
Theodora and her Attendants. San Vital. Ravenna, Italy. ca. 526–547 C.E. Mosaic.
Frame
Frames neatly compartmentalize mosaics with bursts of ornamentation.
Faces
A person depicted in a Byzantine mosaic usually faces front, with staring eyes. While his or her face can be expressive, the features themselves are usually stylized.
Clothes
Much of the complexity of Byzantine mosaics comes from the clothing. Stark, contrasting colors enhance the brilliancy of the drapery.
Figures
Byzantine bodies are elongated and generalized, their small, pointed feet dangling as if they float above the ground. They are usually outlined in black, enhancing their stark otherworldliness.
Setting
Mosaic backgrounds are simple, often just a gold field of color.
Perspective
In some Byzantine art, important people are larger and taller than less important people.
Still Early Byzantine Art
Ornamentation
For Byzantines, the more expensive the materials, the better the works of art. There was a decrease in large marble statuary and an increase in costly materials like metal, ivory, and glass in the early period. The glass industry was driven in part by demand for mosaic pieces, enamel for plating, and individual pieces for imperial court made of blue and purple glass.
Unfortunately, most of what is left of the famous Byzantine glass industry is shards. There was a decline of three-dimensional art (like sculpture in the round) in favor of two-dimensional art (like mosaics, frescoes, and enamels).
Shroud of Charlemagne.
Representation
Though life-like portraiture was not popular, much of Byzantine art sought to represent people (and angels) individually. Byzantine artists did this by referring to complex Christian and Classical symbolism along with using straightforward Greek labels.
Byzantine images seek to tell a story, either a well-known one from the Bible, an exploit of an emperor or empress, or the heroic actions of a saint.
Theotokos between Saints Theodore and George.
Narration
The word Byzantine today is synonymous with ornamentation. Byzantines employed many elaborate styles of decoration—an elaborate gold frame around an icon, busy geometric patterns on clothing, or thousands of angels crowding an upper register.
Greek letters are decorative and informative, and repeating motifs of flowers and animals are similar to neighboring Islamic art.
Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well.
Jacob Wrestling the Angel
Barberini Ivory
Barberini Ivory.
The Barberini Ivory was once part of an imperial diptych celebrating the military triumph of an emperor and represents an intersection of Classical imagery and Byzantine art. At the center is the emperor (possibly Justinian) on a horse. Note that he is larger than everything else and carved in higher relief.
In the same panel, Classical elements include a winged representation of Victory flying beside him and a personification of the fertile Earth beneath him. To his side and behind him is a barely visible conquered enemy, likely Muslim. More conquered people bearing gifts make up the lower register. In the left panel, a general holds a statue of Victory. Above the emperor are winged angels surrounding an image of Christ, who gives sanction to the emperor’s actions.
Archangel Michael
Archangel Michael.
The Archangel Michael comes from an ivory diptych of the 6th century C.E. A representation of the Archangel Michael, it uses Classical elements including the wet drapery technique, Michael’s facial expression, and the orb of power he bears in his hand. The orb is surmounted by a Christian cross signifying Christ’s dominion over Earth. There is a change in perspective: Michael is in front of the pillars from the waist up, but his feet are on the steps behind the pillars.
Shroud of Charlemagne
The Shroud of Charlemagne is a silken cloth manufactured in Constantinople in 814 C.E. It depicts a large man riding a chariot. Smaller figures are nearby, not touching him. Note the frontal, linear nature of all the figures and the many ornamental circles with their stylized, repeating motifs.
Apse Mosaic
All the figures in the Apse Mosaic and Choir of San Vitale are flat, symbolic, and isolated, lacking three-dimensional representation. There is no overlapping of figures, nor are there natural poses. While Classical, naturalistic poses will make a comeback from time to time in Byzantium, the Byzantine linear form is firmly established, with its focus on spirituality and detail.
Icons and Iconoclasm
Byzantine art is characterized by icons and highly stylized conventions. The icon Theotokos between Saints Theodore and George from the Monastery of St. Catherine portrays Mary, the mother of God (Theotokos), enthroned with an infant Christ, flanked by two saints, with angels rising in the background.
An icon like this would be displayed at a church or in smaller form at a private home. All figures are flat and frontal, wearing textured drapery and floating atop small, pointed feet and demonstrate the distinctly Byzantine style.
Early or late, what’s the difference?
Yes, Early Byzantine is marked by the three F’s—flat, frontal, and floating. As the period progressed, so did the portrayal of perspective and dimension. If someone is floating, you know what period they belong in.
People soon started spreading rumors about the mystical properties of these spiritual, otherworldly icons. Some icons spoke, cried, or bled. Some were said to be acheropoietes.
The Virgin of Vladimir is a middle-period Byzantine icon. She is characteristic of the Byzantine style, evident in the flat gold background, stylized but expressive face, elongated proportions, and ornamentally folded drapery.
Some members of the clergy condemned what they saw as a violation of the second commandment, which bans the use of idols. This influenced Emperor Leo III, who was having a difficult time as Islamic armies kept defeating him. After a major volcanic eruption in 726 C.E. darkened the skies over Constantinople for days, Leo III decided that the hand of God had been withdrawn from his city because icons were being used as idols.
Once Leo III banned icon use, he started to win battles. This began a tradition of iconoclast emperors. During this movement, known as iconoclasm, church mosaics were painted over with lime and replaced by secular or natural images. Eventually, the widowed Empress Theodora stopped iconoclasm while acting as regent for her son, Michael III, in 843 C.E.
Theotokos between Saints Theodore and George.
The Triumph of Orthodoxy was made in the late Byzantine Period as part of a commemorative celebration of the end of iconoclasm.
Mary Theotokos is enthroned in the center of the upper register. Empress Theodora and her young son take up the left. On the right is Patriarch Methodios, a man who had been tortured and imprisoned due to his love of icons and who had been raised to his post by Theodora herself.
In the lower register are saints, some holding icons. The background is the now typical gold. The figures are largely frontal, though there is overlapping. A few floating feet are visible. Contrasting colors are the most obvious part of this picture. The overall impression is of an intensely stylized icon-painting tradition.
Icons, of all Byzantine work, are usually the most rigid in form. This is partly due to the popularity of set images among the people and to the standards set by defiant defenders of icons.
Our Lady of Vladimir.
Istanbul Was Constantinople
Istanbul Was ConstantinopleThe middle period of Byzantine art (834–1204 C.E.) begins at the end of iconoclasm. A new dynasty of Macedonian kings led by Basil I patronized the renaissance of Classical forms. This period is characterized by a renewed interest in Classical references and design. However, this initial resurgence of naturalistic art was then followed by increasing emphasis on elongated forms.
One of the first things the Macedonian emperors did was repair churches mutilated by iconoclasm. In 867 C.E., a new apse mosaic was added to Hagia Sophia. It depicts a seated Mary Theotokos who doesn’t seem to be hovering entirely by herself. Her seat shows an attempt at three-dimensionality. Her body is more realistic; you can see her legs through the folds of her clothing. Her attitude toward her child is tender, and her hands are clearly rendered and emotive.
Theotokos and Child from the apse mosaic. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (Constantinople). 867 C.E. Mosaic.
Perspective and emotion characterized the Middle Period. Faces are generalized, Christ’s clothing is flat, and the contrasting palette and flat gold background are stark.
Triptychs overcame diptychs in popularity during the Middle Period. The Harbaville Triptych, made of ivory, displays Christ with Mary and St. John in the upper register of the central panel, with apostles below. Saints decorate the doors.
Note the frontal figures and the elongated feet, raised up on blocks. The figures on the lower registers are all wearing Classical togas, but the drapery is very flat. A decorative plant motif separates the registers in the central panel.
This work begins the decline of classical features and moves toward a new stylistic portrayal: bodies become more elongated and manneristic, and designs become more intricate and ornate.
Harbaville Triptych. Constantinople. ca. 950 C.E. Ivory.
More Ivory
The Pyxis of al-Mughira was carved for al-Mughira, the youngest son of an Umayyad caliph, as a gift for his eighteenth birthday. A pyxis is a cylindrical container, usually used to contain perfume or cosmetics, that was traditionally given to members of royal families to commemorate special occasions and featured symbols of royal power and privilege, like hunting scenes and musical entertainments. The Pyxis of al-Mughira is has figural representation and is therefore not aniconic.
Art historians think that the symbolism represented in the pyxis illustrates the struggle between the Umayyads the Abasids, another Muslim group vying for power, and that it also served as an invitation to al-Mughira to gather power in hopes that he would be caliph. Therefore, Pyxis of al-Mughira functioned as a container, a gift of luxury, and as a political work designed to serve as royal propaganda.
Inscription
The inscription at the base of the lid of the pyxis says “God’s blessing, favors, and happiness to a-Mughira, son of the commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him in the year 357 [968 C.E.].”
Ivory
The use of ivory is significant as it has been considered a luxury item since ancient times. Ivory objects have been found from prehistory, ancient Egypt, China, Japan, and India. While there are no surviving examples from ancient Greece, writings indicate they existed.
Medallions
The pyxis has four medallions, each with 8 lobes, that contain Umayyad symbolism, including:
- A scene of the attack of two bulls by two lions, which is a symbol of Umayyad victory.
- Two men on horseback retrieving eggs from falcon nests, which symbolize the Umayyads as they were known as “the falcons of the Quraysh” and may be a symbol of the Umayyads claim to the throne.
- A lute player between two figures, one holding a staff and a bottle, which are symbols of a ruler, the other holding a fan, thought to be a representative of the Abassids.
- Figures riding on horseback and collecting dates from trees symbolizing the Umayyads conquering lands under Abbasid control.
Other Decoration
The medallions are surrounded by figures and animals that include falconers, wrestlers, griffons, peacocks, birds, goats, and animals to be hunted. The decoration is intricate and covers the entire visible surface of the pyxis.
Pyxis of al-Mughira. Umayyad. C. 968 C.E. Ivory.
A Time Without Art
The Middle and Late periods of Byzantine art are separated by a gulf of artless space from 1204 to 1261 C.E. This is when Constantinople was sacked by an army of the Fourth Crusade. The Latin invaders built nothing. They put up a puppet state, melting Byzantine metalwork and shipping off much of the city’s wealth.
When Michael VIII led the restoration of the city, poorer materials were used. Frescoes were more common than mosaics. Paper replaced parchment, and bookmaking diminished. Gold was replaced by silver gilt, pewter, and ceramic—even in the imperial court. Tradition and imitation of older work dominated. Extremities got even smaller and less detailed. Drapery was flat and angular.
Crusaders in Constantinople.
By the 1400s, Constantinople was in ruins. Centuries of warfare had finally seen an end to the golden city.
Following an invasion by the Ottoman Turks, Constantinople was destroyed and renamed Istanbul in 1453 C.E. Its people were scattered. Some brought the learning of the Greeks back to the West, while some went north, where Russia stood to inherit the traditions of the Orthodox church.
Lesson Summary
Petra, a commercial city that had architectural and artistic styles that resulted from numerous external cultural influences, became a part of the Roman Empire in 106 C.E. Constantine became the emperor of Western part of the Roman Empire and issued the Edict of Milan in 313 C.E., which ceased the persecution Christians were facing at the time. Art with Christian themes began to emerge in 190 C.E. Pagans, Jews, and Christians used catacombs that were often painted or had mosaics with religious narrative. The city of Byzantium became Constantinople and was a Christian society. Its art reflected Christian imagery and narrative, Classical heritage and cultural influence from Persia and other cultures.
Medieval Art and Influence of Religion
The Big Three
There are commonalities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three are monotheistic religions that have much basis in the Hebrew Bible. The spread of these religions impacted medieval art.
Medieval art is driven by the requirements of worship, elite or court culture, and learning.
You have already learned about Islam and Christianity. Let’s explore how Judaism is interconnected with the Roman Empire and art of the medieval period.
Judaism
Judaism believes in one just and fair god who is concerned with the actions of humankind. it is extrapolated from the Tanakh, or Hebrew bible, which was developed over a millennium and consists of the Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. The Hebrew bible prophesies that a messiah, promised deliverer of the Jewish nation, will come, and bring an age of universal peace and recognition of God. Judaism holds that this event has not yet happened.
Christianity
Christianity is rooted in Judaism, but the two religions deviated from each other in the 1st century C.E. Christians incorporated the Hebrew bible as their Old Testament and have the same beliefs in the nature of God. They believe that prophesies of the Old Testament were fulfilled through Jesus, and the New Testament tells of the life of Jesus, the earliest days of the Christian church, letters of encouragement, and prophesies of what is to come.
Dura-Europos Synagogue
The Roman Empire greatly impacted followers of Judaism. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonians in 586 B.C.E. The Second Temple was rebuilt as a replacement by 515 B.C.E. and was destroyed by Titus, the future emperor of Rome, in 70 C.E.
In the absence of the Temple in Jerusalem, synagogues rose to prominence as “little temples”.
Synagogues adopted some of the functions of the destroyed Temple. Some synagogues were decorated with images depicting narratives from the Hebrew Bible beginning in the 3rd century C.E. The most extensive example discovered to date comes from the city of Dura-Europos.
West Wall
The best-preserved part of the Dura-Europos Synagogue’s assembly hall is its west wall, with its focus on the niche that once held a wooden cabinet for the Torah. This is significant as it indicated the beginning of directional worship in Judaism. The west-facing niche enabled individuals to worship the scrolls and Jerusalem at the same time.
The three levels of narrative panels on the surrounding walls represent several scenes from the Hebrew Bible that recount the history of Israel in ways that connect to the Jewish community that worshipped there. A simple temple image marks the Torah shrine.
West wall of assembly hall with view of Torah shrine
The Exodus
In this detail from the Dura-Europos Synagogue paintings, we see part of the narrative in which the God of Israel delivered his people from slavery in Egypt by miraculously parting the Red Sea so that they could pass through. Like a Hebrew or Aramaic text, the narrative is read from right to left.
Although Moses wields his staff, the presence of the large hands above—symbolic of the intervention of Israel’s God—is what truly has power to bring about the miracle.
Dura-Europos Synagogue does not contain an image of Israel’s god. Instead, symbols indicate divine involvement in the narrative like the hands from above or images of fire.
The Exodus (Moses and Israelites crossing the Red Sea).
The Hebrew Bible depicts a nonphysical character of Israel’s god and contains various prohibitions against representing this god or creating images of other gods to worship, similar to aniconism in Islam.
Just a Book? Not Quite
One of the luxury arts found among the Early Christians was the illuminated manuscript. The earliest written documents were made of papyrus, parchment, or vellum and created in scroll form and functioned as an editable way to keep written text.
In the 1st century C.E., the codex, similar in format to a modern book, came into existence. A gathering of several sheets of folded vellum or parchment, this evolved in the 4th century to replace the scroll, as the scrolls were difficult to store and to access specific information quickly.
The Vienna Genesis is a luxury manuscript made of purple dyed vellum with gold and silver writing. The purple dye is significant, as it was associated with royalty. Also was used to give imperial cloth its distinctive color—evidence of the high value placed on the manuscript.
It has several illuminations at the bottom of its pages. There is a continuous narrative, in a style similar to Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, recounting the story of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well, depicting the servant Eliezer finding a wife for Isaac, Abraham’s son.
Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well, from the Vienna Genesis
In the first episode, Rebecca leaves the city of Nahor to draw water from the well. In the second episode, she offers water to Eliezer and his camels. The city of Nahor is portrayed as a walled city in the background, like cityscapes in Roman Second Style paintings. There is also a partially nude female sitting on the well, a personification of the spring source of the well water. Both are evidence of the classical motifs and stylistic influence in Early Christian art.
Another page shows Jacob Wrestling the Angel, also in continuous narrative. There are several episodes depicting Jacob’s journey and his encounter with the angel going from left to right and then twisting around and back to the left. The artist has included vegetation and the twisting of the bridge behind and in front of the figures to help create the illusion of depth.
Christianity during the Middle Ages placed increasing emphasis on the power of the book.
Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis.
Only the Wealthy
Wealth was the determining factor when it comes to illuminated manuscripts. These books were labor-intensive and comprised of expensive materials. They were valuable and commissioned by rulers and the wealthy. Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry was commissioned by the Duke of Berry, his name says it all—wealthy patron.
The Coronation Gospels Codex
Illuminated manuscripts became some of the most valuable, portable objects of the time, not only because they were frequently embossed with gold and inlaid with gems, but because creating, possessing, and reading them were acts of piety.
Historians have been able to determine the wealth of a site simply according to the number of books produced.
Many illuminated manuscripts from the Carolingian Period are liturgies or Gospel Books: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John from the New Testament. Gospel Books were needed across the kingdom to meet the needs of newly built churches and monasteries.
These books were handwritten, illuminated, and authenticated as true to the original word. Illuminated Gospel Books were often used at a ruler’s coronation service, so many illuminated manuscripts became known as Coronation Gospels, and imperial patronage drove the production of illuminated manuscripts.
And the Empire Fell
The word medieval comes from the Latin medioaevum, meaning Middle Ages.
The Medieval Period is the time between the end of classical Greco-Roman antiquity and the beginning of the Renaissance, the rebirth of classical civilization.
The Middle Ages can be defined, roughly, as the period in European history between the 7th and the early 11th centuries C.E.
Although medieval art has sometimes been dismissed as a barbarous decline from the standards of classical antiquity, the period produced many innovative and artistic forms of expression. Some of the earliest medieval art comes from the migration period. During this period, nomadic, nomadic non-Christian people (the Celts, Franks, Anglo–Saxons, and Vikings) produced art of great skill.
1st Millennium B.C.E.
Early 5th Century C.E.
The Franks settled in northern Gaul (France) during the 5th century C.E. as the power of the Roman Empire receded.
As the power of the Roman Empire receded during the 5th century C.E., the Franks settled in northern Gaul (France). The Merovingian Kingdom was the first French royal house.
Late 8th Century C.E.
During the late 8th century C.E., the Vikings came forth from Scandinavia and began to plunder parts of northern Europe. In some cases, they established colonies. The Vikings traveled as far as Novgorod in Russia and North America.
Funerary Objects, Medieval Style
As the power of the Roman Empire receded, non-Roman peoples began to settle across Europe. These peoples often had little familiarity with the classical tradition of artistic representation and, initially, were nomadic. Art produced was often portable, but of high quality and is categorized as animal-style art.
Portable is significant?
Yes. Portable means moveable. And, if moved far enough, it will impact another culture. And now you have another example of cross-cultural fertilization.
Purse cover
The Purse cover, metalworking, and other kinds of funerary objects were retrieved from the Sutton Hoo ship burial site, crafted in cloisonné, is characterized by two features:
Interlace patterns: Interlace is derived from Roman ornamentation, but the heads of monsters are new additions.
Animal motifs: Abstract depictions of animals have been woven together as part of the decorative patterns of the purse cover. The two motifs in the center portray falcons devouring ducks. The two outer motifs represent a human figure between two beasts, in a similar style as the Bull-headed lyre. Here, the male figures are abstracted almost beyond recognition.
Purse cover retrieved from Sutton Hoo ship burial site. Suffolk, England. ca. 625 C.E. Cloisonné.
NOTE: The Anglo-Saxon treasures unearthed at Sutton Hoo have been described as one of “greatest archaeological discoveries of all time”. This discovery has been turned into Netflix film The Dig starring Carey Mulligan and Ralph Fiennes.
Shoulder clasp
The Shoulder clasp (closed) retrieved from Sutton Hoo ship burial site consists of two curved parts connected with a pin that serves as a hinge. A panel on each side is decorated with millefiori insets. Interlace patterns around the borders of the clasp become serpents, which are staples of poetry from an early period in Ireland.
Shoulder clasp retrieved from Sutton Hoo ship burial site. Suffolk, England. ca. 625 C.E. Gold, garnet, and millefiori glass.
Animal head post
The ship from the Sutton Hoo burial site is in ruins. However, during a later period, another people, the Vikings, produced a fantastic ship that has been preserved. The 70-foot-long ship was used for burial and was covered over by a burial mound.
The Animal head post from the ship gives an idea of the intricacy of the ship’s decoration. Like the metal work from the Sutton Hoo burial site, it is decorated with a complex interlace design and the post becomes a beast intended to intimidate.
Animal head post. Viking ship burial. Oseberg, Norway. ca. 825 C.E. Wood.
Merovingian looped fibula
The Merovingian looped fibula were likely the possessions of a wealthy Merovingian woman and were intended to accompany their owner into the afterlife. There are decorative patterns covering the entire surface of each of the fibulae.
These patterns adjust to the shape of the object, amplify the form and structure, and therefore become an organic part of the pins. A fish is incorporated below the center of each pin, and the looped forms around the edges are stylized eagles’ heads, evidence of the inclusion of abstract animal forms.
Merovingian looped fibula.
Manuscripts Brought to You From the British Isles
Art of the Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings served as the basis for some of the earliest Christian art in northern Europe. In addition to the Christian faith, Christian missionaries brought literacy to the Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings. This led to the early medieval period production of the illuminated manuscript. The Gospel Book was quite popular.
Manuscripts from the British Isles reflect both the design sensibilities of the animal style and the influence of Roman Christianity.
They were produced in monasteries on the islands of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Another term sometimes used is Hiberno-Saxon art, a name that reflects the influence of the Irish monastic movement.
Manuscripts from the British Isles reflect both the design sensibilities of the animal style and the influence of Roman Christianity.
They were produced in monasteries on the islands of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Another term sometimes used is Hiberno-Saxon art, a name that reflects the influence of the Irish monastic movement.
Book of Durrow
The Arrest of Christ. Folio 114r. Book of Kells. ca. late 8th-early 9th century C.E. Tempera on vellum.
The Book of Durrow is the earliest extant example of Hiberno-Saxon Gospel Books. It is named for the town in Ireland where it was kept in the later medieval period, but its origin is unknown.
One likely candidate is the monastery on Iona founded by St. Columba during the 6th century. Vikings attacked Iona during the late 8th century. It is possible that the book was taken to Durrow in the wake of this disaster.
Incipit
Incipit. Gospel of Mark. Folio 86 recto from the Book of Durrow. ca. 660–680 C.E. Ink and tempera on parchment.
Each of the gospels begins with an incipit page, in which lavish decoration emphasizes the first letter of the text. In this example, which opens the Gospel of Mark, the I and the first part of the “N” that begin the word Initium are composed of interlace patterns and Celtic spirals that resemble the patterns in metalwork from the arts produced by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon artisans.
The letters and words that follow grow smaller and less elaborate. In addition to beautifying a holy book, the incipit pages have the practical purpose of helping the reader locate sections in the book.
Evangelist Symbol
PHOTO: Man, symbol for Saint Matthew. Folio 21 verso from the Book of Durrow. ca. 660–680 C.E. Ink and tempera on parchment.
Each gospel also begins with a full-page image containing an evangelist symbol. On this page, surrounded by an interlace border, the figure of a man looks like a checkerboard with legs and a head. He has the elements of Byzantine stylization: floating, flat, and frontal. The body of the man resembles the millefiori pattern of the shoulder clasp from Sutton Hoo.
The floating figure is flattened, with the legs shown from the side, whereas the head is positioned frontally. Despite the extreme stylization of the figure, there are also some realistic details—in particular, the figure is shown with the hairstyle of an Irish monk, with the head shaved at the front.
The Lindisfarne Gospels
The Lindisfarne Gospels were written in the monastery of Lindisfarne in England and remained there until Viking raiders drove the monks out.
Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page.
Like the Book of Durrow, it reflects the influence of migration period patterns. In this carpet page, we can see intricate interlace and millefiori patterns. Here the patterns have resolved themselves into a cross, as if this symbol of Christian faith had tamed the powers represented by the birds and other creatures that skulk in the margins.
Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Luke incipit page.
The Lindisfarne Gospels also include evangelist portraits, a type of image derived from early Roman Christian art. Indeed, there is strong evidence that the portraits may be copies, or at least variations on manuscript sources.
Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Luke portrait page.
In this image, the evangelist Luke is clearly derived from Roman sources, but is remade in the visual idiom of the Hiberno-Saxon tradition. The image shows Matthew writing his gospel, and his symbol is depicted above him. The folds of Luke’s garments have been transformed into an abstract pattern, as have the evangelist’s locks of hair.
It’s All Narrative
You have experienced narrative art in different forms. The Vienna Genesis uses continuous narrative to recount biblical stories. The narrative of the Column of Trajan detailed Trajan’s victorious campaigns against the Dacians spiraling upward around the column. The Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus uses forceful diagonals, dramatic contrasts, twisting figures, and emotional expressionism to convey the story of a chaotic battle scene between Romans and a northern enemy. How does art in other cultures express narrative?
Detail of decapitated and fleeing Dacians. Column of Trajan. Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. ca. 113–118 C.E.
Battle of Romans and barbarians. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus. Late Imperial Roman. c. 250 C.E. Marble.
The Bayeux Tapestry
The Bayeux Tapestry is not a real tapestry, in which figures are woven in with the thread, but an embroidered work of art, in which colored wool was stitched onto a linen background. It resembles a long comic strip made of cloth.
The narrative style is a combination of pictographic Byzantine codices and Romanesque illumination.
The 58 surviving scenes describe the history of the conflict, William of Normandy’s conquest, the Battle of Hastings, and the aftermath. The Battle of Hastings began when England’s King Edward the Confessor died in 1066 C.E. William of Normandy was a relative of King Edward, but Harold Godwinson was crowned king. That same year, William sailed for England, slew Harold in battle, and took the crown for himself.
In The Bad Omen episode of the Bayeux Tapestry, a comet flies above Harold’s palace, making its occupants uneasy. In medieval astrology, comets foretold unsettling events. This comet signifies the coming invasion of England.
This scene shares many aspects with illuminated manuscripts:
- The Latin words floating overhead are much like Byzantines’ Greek interjections.
- Large, bright blocks of color used in the clothing lend an almost cartoonish quality to the narratives, contrasting with the realistic presentation of the figures in the Column of Trajan.
- The blocks of color are typical of Romanesque illumination and of most art of the period.
Bayeau Tapestry
The Bad Omen
The Battle of Hastings
Narrow upper and lower registers frame the story, in contrast to the intertwined figures in the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus.
Elongation provides elegance and allows for the expanded portrayal of movement. Look how the pointing men use not only their hands, but also their entire bodies. The others’ upraised hands speak of curiosity and concern. Even the architecture is stylized and elongated, arching high over the figures’ heads like the churches of the era.
These architectural motifs, along with stylized landscapes, punctuate expanded portrayal of movement. Look how the pointing men use not only their hands, but also their entire bodies. The others’ upraised hands speak of curiosity and concern. Even the architecture is stylized and elongated, arching high over the figures’ heads like the churches of the era. These architectural motifs, along with stylized landscapes, punctuate.
Lesson Summary
The Medieval period is classified as the time between the end of classical Greco-Roman antiquity and the beginning of the Renaissance.
Medieval art was greatly impacted by the requirements of Jewish, Christian, or Islamic worship. One of the luxury arts found among the Early Christians was the illuminated manuscript. The art produced by nomadic, non-Roman peoples was often portable but of high quality and is categorized with animal-style art.
Examples of metalworking and other kinds of funerary objects were found in the remains of a ship at the Sutton Hoo ship burial in Suffolk, England. Manuscripts from the British Isles like the Book of Kells, the Book of Durrow, and the Lindisfarne Gospels reflect both the design sensibilities of the animal style and the influence of Roman Christianity.
ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC
Roman Inspiration
The term Romanesque describes architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries.
Romanesque reflects certain Roman techniques, such as the barrel vault and the round arch. Several stylistic sources mark the Romanesque period:
- The legacy of Roman Imperial or Late Antique/Early Christian architecture and sculpture—seen in the use of Roman style masonry vaulting, rather than wooden roofs, and the reintroduction of monumental architectural sculpture in stone.
- Continuity with the traditions of Carolingian and Ottonian art
- The influence of Byzantine and Islamic art
During the Romanesque period, the Holy Roman Empire included much of what is now Germany and Northern Italy. The Salian dynasty replaced the Ottonian dynasty in the 11th century; and the Ottonian and Early Christian influence is visible in architecture as masons began to adopt Romanesque innovations in masonry.
Church of Sainte-Foy.
h of Sainte-Foy.This influence extended beyond the Holy Roman Empire. Romanesque architecture was marked by experimentation and variety. As Romanesque was influenced, in turn Romanesque stylistic qualities influenced the early development of Gothic architecture:
- The beginning of the use of pointed windows to help distribute weight more efficiently
- Early experimentation with vaulting techniques, such as groin vaults and the use of ribs
- Use of segmented units to construct a regular plan
- Rhythmic elaboration of the interior elevation and nave arcade
- The addition of the east end of the church (as in the development of the pilgrimage choir)
- The elaboration of Carolingian west work into a dramatic two-towered entrance
Gothic, Not the Trend You Thought It Was
The Gothic period, known as the age of the great cathedrals, began in approximately 1150 C.E. and lasted until about 1400 C.E. Although it originated in France, the Gothic style spread throughout Western Europe to become the first truly International Style. The Gothic aesthetic encompassed a wide range of structures and media, including churches, palaces, and portraits.
Gothic architecture is best defined as the “quest for height and light”, considered to be an opposing pole to the Classical Greco-Roman styles in Europe. The heart of the Gothic aesthetic was the belief that divinity could be experienced through the senses, and Gothic architecture sought to connect viewers to the heavens with high, soaring vaults; bright, multicolored lights; and echoing sounds.
The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, exterior view of the west façade. Paris, France. ca. 1135–1140 C.E.
The characteristic forms of Gothic emphasized and facilitated this heavenly encounter:
- lofty masonry that reached toward the heavens
- complex, ornate lines with elegant patterns
- high, thin walls with great expanses of richly colored stained glass in large windows that allowed for extensive light
Elaborated architecture to support a socio-political development
Now that you know the characteristics—Gothic art and architecture is crazy elaborate—it’s time to move on to what it’s about: the social and political stuff.