Ancient Mediterranean Art 2.3

Ancient Mediterranean Art

3500 BCE- 300 BCE

TOPIC 2.3  Purpose and Audience in Ancient Mediterranean Art

A variety of purposes may affect art and art making.  Some examples include audience, patron, artistic intention, and/ or function. Differing situations and contexts may influence the artist, patron, or intended audience.

In Near East and dynastic Egypt these functions sometimes changed overtime, ultimately affecting the art and artist traditions, that were focused on representing royal figures and divinities.  This also applied to the function of funerary and palatial complexes within their cultural contexts.

Architectural representations include towering ziggurats that provide monumental settings for the worship of many deities, as well as heavily fortified palaces that increased in opulence over the centuries. All were to proclaim the power and authority of rulers.

What is a Ka Statue?

A ka statue is a statue to house the ka, or the spirit, after death. It is part of the culture of dynastic Egypt, represented by an elaborate funerary sect. The devotees created numerous ka statues, as well as artifacts, decorations, and furnishings for tombs.

The Basis of Art from Ancient Greece and Rome

The art of Ancient Greece and Rome is grounded in civic ideals and polytheism. Etruscan and ancient Roman art express republican and imperial values, power, and preference for conspicuous display. Etruscan and Roman architecture are characterized by investment in public structure.

(2) 19. The Code of Hammurabi

Babylonian (Susian). Basalt. 1,792-1,750 BCE. Babylon (Susa, Iran). Mesopotamian (Babylonian).

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian law code

Themes:

Appropriation
Rulers
Status
Power
Text and image
Community
Commemoration

Museum: Louvre

Once again, this work is a stele or a stone slab to mark a gravesite, standing 7 feet 6 inches tall. At the top it is a relief sculpture, and this is a sample of low relief. It has incised/intaglio text that is carved into the material. The figures show a twisted perspective, in that they are viewed in profile, with the shoulders facing forward. This work also shows a hierarchy of scale. The seated figure (god) would be displayed as the taller figure if standing.

Images Up Close

This one is representational of the law and designed in three sections.

At the top is a carved relief of King Hammurabi on the left, who ruled Babylonia from 1792-1750 BCE.

To the right is Shamash, the sun god and god of justice, indicated by the horned crown on his head and the beams of divine light radiating from his shoulders. The god is seated on a temple throne or ziggurat that is perched upon mountains. He is gifting the king with a rope, rod, and ring, as a sign of power. Hammurabi on the left is speaking in greeting, while gesturing. He stands respectfully in front of Shamash.

The Text

There are three passages. The first is the justification of Hammurabi as king as well as a glorification.  Below this is a section of 300 laws, inscribed in cuneiform script, in the Akkadian language. This determines the result of any wrong actions, which has already been established through legal precedence.

For example, it says:

If a man builds a house for someone and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls and kills its owner, then the builder shall be put to death.

The third section of text is a poem praising Hammurabi’s virtues.

Function of The Code of Hammurabi

This work was crafted to ensure that the laws were known to the public. It includes images, as the literacy rate was extremely low in ancient civilizations. These laws give a sense in history to what was important in Babylonian laws.

It also glorified Hammurabi, as a pious and obedient ruler. The poem on the stele makes it clear that he is responsible for bringing the law to the people.

Context

This work is the earliest law code ever written and likely predates the Old Testament commandments. It was exhibited at the city of Sippar in the Babylonian kingdom, with  multiple copies placed around the kingdom.

 

(2) 21. Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty). 1,473-1,458 BCE.  Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Learning Objective: Egyptian mortuary temple

Themes:

Funerary
Place of worship
Rulers
Propaganda
Religion
Site-specific
Deities
Commemorate
Architecture

Museum: Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut is at Metropolitan Museum in NYC

Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut was built against cliffs near Luxor, Egypt, the location was picked as a dramatic backdrop for the architecture.  Long horizontals repeat the patterns of the cliffs behind.  Patterns of dark and light are evident in the cliffs and colonnades. The organic quality of stone contrasts with the construction of the temple.

Carved from living rock, it is comprised of red rock and sandstone. The architecture gives it a sense of permanence and stability. It has three colonnaded terraces. A colonnade is a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature. Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut also has porticos or shallowed columned porches.

The Story of Hatshepsut

This temple was built by Senmut, Hatshepsut’s architect and lover.

Hatshepsut ruled Egypt for 22 years as king, even though she was female. At the time, there was no Egyptian word for queen–just king’s wife or king’s mother. She was daughter of Thutmose I, and wife/sister of Thutmose II who died. No legitimate heir was old enough to rule.

Hatshepsut took the throne over her nephew/stepson Thutmose III. She gradually increased her role of regent to that of pharaoh.

She claimed an oracle had predicted she would be pharaoh and that she was born from the gods. No knowledge of how she died or was superseded was ever uncovered. We do know that Thutmose III destroyed many records about her after her death.

Worshipping the Sun God

This temple was built for Hatshepsut, so she could worship Amun-Rae, the sun god. Originally the gardens were planted with trees and 200 sculptures.

One of the sculptures that would have been in the garden was The Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut. The large granite sculpture shows the ruler kneeling for the sun god. An inscription on the work says she is making an offering.

Hatshepsut is dressed in the costume of male pharaohs, with a royal headdress and false ceremonial beard. Although she appears topless, her breasts are de-emphasized, and her shoulders are wide. To be displayed as a pharaoh meant to be displayed as male. She followed through with this as she wanted to convey her royal authority.

Today, this sculpture is on display at the Metropolitan Museum in NYC.

Function of Mortuary Temples

Temples were places kings worshipped their own patron gods while they are still alive. When the kings died, people would worship them there.

This temple was political propaganda for Hatshepsut. She wanted to  display herself as permanent and strong, while maintaining the traditions established by Narmer and carried on by Menkaure.

The Background Story

Rock-cut tombs were carved into the Valley of the Kings with entrances that were carefully concealed. This important canyon is where for 500 years during the time of the New Kingdom royals and nobles were buried.

The Valley was considered sacred to the principal feminine goddess associated with the funeral world, Nephthys. If Old Kingdom is known for pyramids, then New Kingdom is known for rock-cut tombs.

 

(2) 23.Tutankhamun’s tomb, innermost coffin

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty). 1,323 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Learning Objective: Egyptian sarcophagus

Themes:

Funerary
Religious
Ideal man
Power
Status
Deities
Commemoration
Materials with significance

Museum: Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Tutankhamun’s coffin has always been a showstopping piece of art. The inner most gold coffin measures 6 feet 7 inches and weighs 243 pounds. It has been carved using incisions and is inlaid with two types of semi precious stones– lapis lazuli and turquoise.

It also contains enamel work. Melted and fused glass powder is them mixed with pigment to create colour, then smoothed once cooled.

The Role of the Sarcophagus

This sarcophagus was made not only to protect the body, but to house it before unification with ka. The great expense it took to create this work, was a display of status and prestige, as well as the deification of Tut.

The bright colouring indicated a better life in the after world. Special symbols were included to help the body ward off spirits. Holding the crook and flail was a pharaonic symbol of power.

Nut, the sky goddess wrapped her wings around the mummy as protection.

Who was King Tut?

King Tut was Akhenaton’s son with his sister. He was a sickly child and died by the age of 18, but not before marrying his sister. His tomb was small, which leaves historians to assume that his death was sudden and unexpected. With his brief life he was a minor figure in Egyptian history.

King Tut did manage to accomplish a few things in his short time frame. He overturned his father’s interest in the Amarna art and worship of Aten. He restored Egyptian religion to polytheism and Egyptian art to traditional styles.

His name, TutankhAMUN, is a reference to restoring power to the old god Amun.

Why was King Tut and his tomb so famous?

It was the only royal tomb untouched, until it discovered by British Howard Carter, in 1922. Interestingly, there is a curse associated with the tomb, with many stories about people who were in mysterious accidents or died after encountering it.

In January 2015, the funerary mask was damaged in cleaning. The beard was knocked off and a restorationist epoxied it back on in a messy fashion.

 

(2) 30. Audience hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes.

Persian. 520-465 BCE. Mesopotamian (Persian).

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian palace

Themes:

Palace
Power
Domestic space
Rulers
Cross-cultural
Guardian
Architecture
Community

This mud-brick building, with limestone facing was built as part of the palace for Darius I, in Persepolis, in what is today Iran. There are 72 columns and two monumental stairways, with a wooden roof. Artificial terraces were created so it could be built on higher ground. The building is 65 feet tall.

Apadana (hall) was a hypostyle, or roof raised up by multiple columns, created a forest of columns. Some have bull headed capitals. The bulls are one continuous facing. Each are facing outward from each other, with two separate heads. Traces of color at other sites suggest these were brightly colored.

How was this Building Used?

The hall was used for receptions, festivals, and banquets by the king. When receiving his visitors here, he was able to display his power and magnificence.

Decoration on the interior matches the activities that would happen in the room. This included thousands of people carved into the walls, representing 23 nations.

It would later be destroyed by Alexander the Great along with the power of Persia.

(3) 35. Acropolis

Greek. Marble. 447 – 410 BCE. Athens, Greece. Greek (Classical).

Learning Objective: Greek classical religious complex

Themes:

Religious complex
Victory
War
Deities
Civic
Community
Site-specific
Place of worship
Politics
Architecture
Religion
Appropriation (Parthenon as church/mosque)
Devotional object
Status

An Acropolis, is a rugged rock in the center of the city that creates a raised platform. Buildings were raised here, making the space a major and central religious complex to glorify Athens and Athena.

Fit for a Goddess

In Athens, this is where the Parthenon is built. This building was created by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates. It is 1,150 feet long. Interior décor was provided by artist Phidias.

The Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena. It glorified Athena Parthenos, the later word meaning virgin, which was highly valued in Athenian society. The goddess was an enforcer of such modesty. The Panathenaic Procession was a celebration of Athena’s birthday.

The north side was the temple of earlier sects and dedicated to earlier gods. The south side contained temples dedicated to Athena. All Athenians citizens were able to take part in the festivals. Only priests were allowed inside.

The building was also a celebration of the Greek victory over the Persians, while showcasing the Athenian wealth and power.

The Build

The front and back look the same, which was entirely intentional.

Marble at the time was cheap and available. The roof was originally made with wood and capped with marble tiles. It would have been brightly painted at the time, so viewers could easily see and interpret the decorations.

Architectural Terms

Peripteral temple is a temple with a colonnade on all four sides and based on peristyle.

Orders is style represented by columns and entablature. The types used in this building are Doric and Ionic. Doric was used for is the exterior, with fluted shafts, simple capitals, and entablature of triglyphs and metopes. Ionic was used is the interior and used fluted shafts, volute capitals, with entablature of frieze.

It was very unusual to combine orders. Art historians believe this was to show a united Greece, with the Doric representing the mainland style and the Iconic the preferred style of the Greek islands.

The building’s pediment, a trianglar part at the top front of the building that supports the roof was highly carved.

 A Series of Optical Illusions

Adjustments were made in the architecture to compensate for optical illusions. A stylobate or continuous base supporting the row of columns curves upward from center, as does the entablature. This acts to deflect the appearance of sagging in the middle.

The columns lean inward slightly. If the lines the were continued they would all meet 1.5 miles above the temple.  These columns are not evenly spaced to prevent the look of them being clustered.

Entasis is a slight convex curve in the shaft of a column. The columns bulge out in the middle, and this works to give the illusion that they are straight and taper upward.

The columns in the corners were often surrounded by light. This made them look thinner. To remedy this, the columns here were made 2 inches thicker.

 A Visual of Strength

All decorations are a symbol of strength. The metopes or square blocks placed between the channeled triglyphs are carved. The west metopes are depicted with Amazonomachy, a mythical battle between the Amazons and Ancient Greeks. The east metopes illustrate the mythical battle between the gods and giants called Gigantomachy. The northside shows the Trojan war, while the south represents Centauromachy, the battle between the mythical centaurs with the Lapiths.

The pediments too provide stunning visuals. The east shows the birth of Athena, while the west is all about Poseidon versus Athena.

The cella or main room housed a massive chryselephantine statue of Athena, made from gold and ivory Parthenos, and carved by artist Phidias. She was fully armed with a shield, spear, and helmet. In her hand, she held Nike, the winged personification of Victory.

The Backgrounder

The Parthenon was converted into a Byzantine church, then a Catholic church, in the Middle Ages. Next, it made into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Greece. In 1678, Venetians attacked the Turks who were using it for storage for ammunition.

Venetian rockets hit Parthenon and the explosion blew out the center of the building. Today car exhaust is damaging the marble which is very porous.

SUB-IMAGE 2: Helios, horses, and Dionysus (Herakles ?)

These figures were part of the pedimental sculpture on the East pediment that depicts those gathered around the Birth of Athena on Mount Olympus.

From Left to Right

• Helios (sun god) now missing, on horses.
• Dionysus or Herakles (?)

This symbolizes rationalism, idealism, humanism.

• Demeter and Persephone
• Unknown standing figure
• Athena and Zeus would have been in the middle.

Athena is born from Zeus’s head who complained about a headache to Hephaestus who split Zeus’s head open to find Athena popping out fully armed.

• The right-hand side shows three goddesses probably Hestia (domesticity), Artemis/Diana (hunt, chastity, nature) and Aphrodite/Venus (love).

How Phidias Addresses the Awkward Pediment

Typically, sculptors ignored the corners since the space was too small to put any full-sized figures in. Phidias, however, uses the bottom line as a horizon line that figures can move through effortlessly. These are extremely life-like in terms of energy and form. The integration of the figures with one another makes them a complicated composition.

A Sense of Modesty

Wet Drapery, is the way a sculpture is made to portray the folds of clothing, aiding to reveal the contours of the body underneath. It also defines the musculature of the body while maintaining propriety for women.

The Backgrounder

The sculpture was damaged when the building was converted into a church.

It was once nicknamed the Elgin Marbles when purchased in 1803 by Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to Constantinople. He was accused of “stealing culture” as they are still owned by the British Museum. The work would have almost certainly been destroyed had he not removed them.

SUB-IMAGE 3: Plaque of the Ergastines

Greek. 445-438 BCE. Greek (Style)

Museum: Louvre, Paris

This marble work is part of the 525 feet long frieze on the inside of the Ionic part of the Parthenon. This section is 96 feet by 2 feet and 7 inches. It is carved in low relief All the figures stand in contrapposto. The right knee breaks the fall of drapery.

The artist does not use hierarchy of scale and shows all on the same ground line through isocephalism. The work would have originally been painted, with a background painted blue, and the hair of the figures highlighted in gold.

Who Does This Work Represent?

The original theory is that it shows the Panathenaic Procession. Here the citizens of Athens honor Athena, by weaving a peplos. Six Ergastines, or young aristocratic women in charge of weaving the peplos, are greeted by two priests. They all walk in procession towards the Parthenon.

A new theory suggests it could be the depiction of the legendary Athenian king, Erechtheus, who sacrificed one of his daughters to save the city of Athens. An ancient wooden idol of the goddess Athena was said to have fallen from the skies during his reins. The sacrifice was under the guidance of Oracle of Delphi.

With either theory, the mood of the artwork is sombre, as the people wear grave expressions. It shows the religious piety of the upper class, and Athenians at large, and symbolizes the elite community in Athens coming together.

SUB-IMAGE 4: Temple of Athena Nike

This temple as was dedicated to Dedicated to Athena Victorious (Athena Nike), not to be confused with the goddess Nike.

This Amphiprostyle temple has four Ionic columns on the front and back.  It sits oddly on the edge of the Acropolis and there were concerns about it falling off. Around it is a parapet or low protective wall or barrier, 4 feet tall that acted as a guard rail.

Temple of Athena Nike was built over the ruins of a previous temple to Nike. The Persians had destroyed this in 480 BCE.  It was built to commemorate the Greek victory over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon, in 490 BCE.  Part of the frieze is also dedicated to this battle.

Inside the temple there was a statue of Athena Nike. Nike’s image is repeated dozens of times. She often holds a pomegranate, a symbol of wealth.

SUB-IMAGE 5: Nike Adjusting Her Sandal

This work depicts an image of Nike, made to be a part of the decorative program of the Temple of Athena Nike. The graceful figure is modeled in high relief.

Deeply incised drapery lines reveal her body. Wet drapery gives a sense of the weight of the cloth and the gathering around parts of the body. In this way, the awkward posture is rendered elegant and graceful.

Nike adjusts her sandal while her dress slips off one shoulder.

Location Choice

Why was the Acropolis chosen? Temples have been here since Neolithic times. The elevation  is high up, central, and visible. It was the site of Delian League Treasury or collection of money from Athenian city states that was used to combat Persians in Persian War.

Construction

It was constructed under the leadership of Pericles after the Persian sack of Athens, in 480 BCE, after they  destroyed the original Acropolis. Pericles used the extra funds from the Delian League in the Persian War treasury to build the Acropolis.

(2) 39. House of the Vettii

Roman Empire. 2^nd century BCE; rebuilt 62-79 CE.  Roman Empire

Learning Objective:  Roman domestic architecture

Themes:

Domestic space
Status
Private
Architecture

The House of Vetti was one of the most luxurious private homes, or Roman townhouses known as domus, in Pompeii, Italy. The 1, 1000 square meter, stone cut home was named for its owners, two successful brothers, who were former slaves and now freedmen, Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. They were newly rich, through working as merchants and wanted a way to display their wealth.

Most of Pompeii had private homes with few exterior windows and one entrance from the street. At the House of Vettii the entrance is through a foyer into an atrium, or open-air courtyard with an impluvium, or sunken space to catch the rainwater.  

Cubiculas, or private bedrooms surrounded the atrium.  Typically, homes had a second atrium which was surrounded by a peristyle or rectangle of columns. Atriums/peristyle courtyards are sources of illumination.

Pentheus Room

Here, Pompeiian wall frescoes are preserved which has allowed historians to study them.

Historians found there were four styles:

• The First Style was faux marble blocks.
• The Second Style was naturalistic scenes, as though looking through a window.
• The Third Style included slender architectural details, often done in gold or yellow.
• The Fourth Style was a combination of all three, often with scenes of mythological images.

The House of Vetti has excellent examples of the Fourth Style.

Techniques to illustrate depth include  highlights  and modeling, overlapping figures, one point perspective, and atmospheric perspective.

In the Fourth Style wall fresco in the Pentheus Room, the scene on the left is Young Hercules Strangling the Snakes. The scene on the right shows the  Pentheus being torn to pieces by the Cult of Bacchus. Pentheus opposed the cult of Bacchus.

The Background Story

Roman architect Vitruvius wrote De Architectura (On Architecture) in 1^st century BCE. He mentioned the Etruscan Temple of Minerva. He also outlined the key elements and proportions of a Roman home.

This home was discovered in the 18^th century during archaeological excavations that unearthed Pompeii. The city of Pompeii had been buried in volcanic ash, with the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

(2) 42. Head of a Roman Patrician

Republican Roman. 75-50 BCE. Roman Republic BCE.

Learning Objective: Roman Republican sculpture

Themes:

Ideal man
Portrait
Civic
Commemoration
Cross-cultural
Politics
Ancestors
status

Museum: Palazzo Torlonia, Rome

 This work, approximately 14 inches high, is crafted from marble and polychromed or painted in several different colors. This is a portrait in bust form from the shoulders up.

The function was to depict a person accurately. The veristic style is one that is highly realistic and often exaggerated. The old man looks old indeed. Yet in Roman times age meant wisdom, experience, and respect. This face of a Roman patrician aristocrat, nobleman or senator, is also toothless, with a sagging jawline. The name of the individual is unknown.

Patrons of Roman Art

Patrons of Roman art were almost all men from old and distinguished families.  They were fiercely proud of their lineage and wanted to preserve likenesses of themselves and ancestors. Roman Republic art was not interested in idealization and perfection in form but interested in work ethic and civic service.

 

(2) 45. Forum of Trajan

Apollodorus of Damascus. Roman Empire. 106-112 CE. Roman Empire.

Forum of Trajan, in Rome, Italy,  is made of concrete and brick. It measures 980 feet by 607 feet. Trajan was a great military general who expanded the Roman Empire to its largest borders. Like Julius Caesar he wanted to have his own forum. Yet, there was no space available in Rome at the time.

Trajan asked his best architect Apollodorus of Damascus to remove a hill in the city to build the Forum of Trajan.

The Romans did not particularly like concrete, but it was cheap, and they always covered it with marble or brick as with the Forum of Trajan. Concrete also let the Romans build in new ways that were not limited to post-and-lintel construction.

A Public Space Of Power

The Forum of Trajan was a civic space, a  hub that became an administrative, commercial, and political center.  It commemorated the Romans’ victory over the Dacians.

Trajan’s Forum was the size of all other imperial forums put together. Here the military general was able to show his power, prestige, merit, and virtue.

A Quick Tour of the Forum

At the entryway, there is an over-life size gilded bronze statue of emperor. The Basilica Ulpia with apses, has libraries filled with Greek and Roman literature. Additionally, there is the Column of Trajan and the Temple of Trajan.

Basilica Ulpia

The word Ulpia comes from Trajan’s family name.

Basilica Ulpia was a law court and the largest basilica in Rome.  The apse was where the judge sat, with space illumination achieved by clerestory windows. The ceilings were coffered, a technique allowing spaces of the concrete to be carved to lighten the weight.

The basilica was decorated with niches, carvings, relief sculptures and free-standing sculpture.

Basilica Ulpia is considered the most important architectural design in Rome. The architect took the design of the Greek Parthenon, hollowed it out and added apses.  The building shape and design came to signify authority.

The basilica can accommodate large numbers of people. There is one single entrance and exit  to control the flow of people and one single vantage point upon entering.

Trajan Markets

This was a two-story market with 150 shops and offices. The shops, or taberna, varied in size and were rented to shopkeepers. Each shop had a small store-front and storage rooms in the back. These were part of a semi-circular building, with clerestory windows or windows along the roofline. It was built using groin vault construction.

Column of Trajan

The grounds were made up of 125 feet high Roman Doric columns.  Each were 12 feet in diameter and made up 114 individual themes.

Column of Trajan is made of stone from Luna, Italy. Eight solid marble pieces were quarried for the base, with 20 pieces 10 feet in diameter for the column. Each piece is individually carved to create a continuous spiral frieze.  The composition is crowded with 2500 low relief figures. The work shows the Romans at battle, winning with superior military skills.

This was originally commissioned to be a lookout tower and later was converted to a war memorial.  It commemorated Trajan’s campaigns against the Dacians of modern-day Romania. Trajan’s ashes are now located in the base.

The column could be entered, and once inside a spiral staircase led to a viewing platform.

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Ancient Mediterranean Art

3500 BCE- 300 BCE

2. 4 Theories and Interpretations of Ancient Mediterranean Art and Audience in Ancient Mediterranean Art expressions of cultural exchange