Ancient Mediterranean Art 2.1 – MEDIEVAL ART HISTORY

Ancient Mediterranean Art

3500 BCE- 300 BCE

TOPIC 2.1 Cultural Contexts of Ancient Mediterranean Art

Art and art making of the Ancient Mediterranean illustrates the active exchange of ideas, reception of artistic styles, and a subsequent influence on the classical world. The study of artistic innovations and conventions developed in the ancient Near East and dynastic Egypt provides a foundation for comparative understanding of subsequent artistic traditions within the region and beyond.

Ancient Greek, Etruscan, and Roman artists and architects were influenced by earlier Mediterranean cultures. This provides the foundation for the exploration of art in Europe and the Americas. Here we can compare developments, consider continuities and changes over time, and build an understanding of how these works fit into a larger artistic tradition.

Art of the Ancient Near East

The art of the ancient Near East, today represents the countries of Iraq, Syria, Iran, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Cyprus. Art from this area from 3500 to 330 BCE is associated with successive city-states and cultural powers—Sumerian, Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, NeoBabylonian, and Persian.

Religion also plays a significant role in the art and architecture of the ancient Near East. Cosmology is a force guiding representation of deities and kings who themselves assume divine attributes.

Art of Dynastic Egypt

The art of dynastic Egypt, which in present-day is Egypt and Sudan, encompasses art from 3000 to 300 BCE. It generally includes coverage of predynastic Egypt and Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms.

The Amarna period or New KIngdom was also important because of its cultural reform and stylistic revolution. The art of dynastic Egypt embodies a sense of permanence. It was created for eternity in the service of a culture that focused on preserving a cycle of rebirth.

Egyptian art incorporates mythological and religious symbolism, often centered on the cult of the sun. Representations of humans make clear distinctions between the deified pharaoh and people in lower classes. It uses representational and stylistic cues such as hierarchical proportion and idealization versus naturalism.

Approaches to portraiture depend on a figure’s rank in society. The artistic canon of dynastic Egypt, with strict conventions of representation, use of materials, and treatment of forms, was followed for many centuries with only short-lived periods of experimentation and deviation. Innovations in art and architecture tended to occur within the basic and established scheme.

*** See EGYPTIAN ART COLLECTIVE

MESOPTAMIAN ART

The art of the ancient Near East (present day Iraq, Syria, Iran, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan , Cyprus) is associated with the city-states and cultures of Sumerian, Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persia.

Sumerian Art (3500 -2340 BCE)

Akkadian Art (2340 – 2180 BCE)

Neo-Sumerian Art (2150-2000 BCE)

Babylonian Art (1792-1750 BCE)

Hittite Art (1600- 1200 BCE)

Assyrian Art (1000- 612 BCE)

Neo-Babylonian (612-539 BCE)

*** See the MESOPOTAMIAN ART COLLECTIVE

Ancient Greek Art

Ancient Greek art was produced in Europe and western Asia, primarily in the region of present-day Greece, Turkey, and southern Italy, from 600 BCE to 100 BCE. Art considered Ancient Greek includes works from the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, as defined according to artistic style, not by political units such as governments or dynasties.

*** See GREEK ART COLLECTIVE

Etruscan Art

Etruscan art, from the region of Eutruria in central Italy, was produced before 700 to 100 BCE. Etruscan art is typically considered as a single cultural unit even though Etruria was composed of separate city-states.

*** See ETRUSCAN ART COLLECTION

Ancient Roman Art

Ancient Roman art was produced in Europe and western Asia from 753 to 337 BCE. Roman art includes works from the republican, early imperial, late imperial, and late antique periods, as defined using governmental structures and dynasties rather than stylistic characteristics.

*** See ANCIENT ROMAN ART COLLECTION

The Art of Story Telling

The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures shared a rich tradition of epic storytelling. This was first shared in voice and later written in text. It glorified the exploits of gods, goddesses, and heroes. The texts recorded a highly developed rhetorical tradition that prized public oratory and poetry. Religious rituals and prognostications were guided by oral tradition, not texts.

Ancient Greek religious and civic architecture and figural representation are characterized by idealized proportions and spatial relationships, expressing societal values of harmony and order.

Art from the Etruscan and Roman periods is typified by stylistic and iconographical eclecticism and portraiture. Roman architecture is also characterized by borrowing from its immediate predecessors (Greek and Etruscan) and by technical innovation.

The Development of Ancient Mediterranean Art Forms

Art and art making take many different forms both within and across cultures. The materials, processes, and techniques employed may also vary by location and culture, with wide-ranging influence on the art that is generated.

Sculpture

Artists created fully developed, formal types, of art. Sculptures of human figures were made interacting with gods. Stylistic conventions that represented the human form combined profile and three-quarter view. In these combinations, important figures are set apart. Using a hierarchical scale or dividing the compositions into horizontal sections or registers, these sculptures provide significant early examples of historical narratives.

Architectural Construction

The Egyptian architectural construction of the clerestory is particularly important for the history of architecture. Development of monumental stone architecture culminated with the pyramids. These architectural masterpieces, with innovative designs for rock-cut tombs and pylons–the term for massive, sloped gateway.

Each pyramid was built to demonstrate the importance of the pharaoh. Each god-king had absolute power, descended directly from the sun god.

(2) 12.White Temple and its ziggurat.

Sumerian. 3,500 – 3,000 BCE. Mesopotamian (Sumerian).

White Temple
© Richard Ashworth/Robert Harding World Imagery

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian place of worship

Themes:

Religion
Architecture
Community
Power
Status
Place of worship
Light

White Temple and its ziggurat was built in Urek, which in modern times is Warka, in Iraq. It is made of baked mud brick, as stone was too expensive, and wood had to be imported. The base of the ziggurat measures 40 feet.

The buttress is spaced across the surface to create a light and shadow pattern. This helps rainwater wash down pre-designed channels. It also helps to strengthen the building.

The façade or exterior of the building, was whitewashed, with ground white shells or bone. Its purpose was to attract the sun and provide illumination. Rectangular in structure, it measures 17.5 meters by 22.3 meters.

People would ascend via staircase or ramp as the ground plan reveals . This brought people up to the top, but not directly to the entryway (bent axis)

What is a ziggurat?

A ziggurat is a raised platform. It lifted the White Temple to make it visible.

Why was this Built?

The temple functioned as a dedication to the sky God Anu. It was a place for public prayer, worship, and ritual. Priests and royalty had access to temple at the top.

Into the Darkness

The Interior of this temple was very dark to symbolize of the presence of the divine. Darkness was magical, mysterious, and the place where deities and supernatural forces resided.

Historical Context

This is the earliest ziggurat that still survives.

Neolithic civilizations placed tremendous significance on religious institutions. This temple was the spiritual, literal, economic and political center of a community. There are no burials here.

(2) 13. Palette of King Narmer.

Predynastic Egyptian. 3,000-2,920 BCE. Egyptian (Predynastic).

Palette of King Narmer, front © Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Egyptian ceremonial object / established Egyptian artistic traditions.

Themes:

War
Violence
Rulers
Power
Deities
Utilitarian
Animals in art
Commemoration
Ceremony
Victory
Ritual
Human
Divine

Museum: Egyptian Museum, Cairo

Considered so valuable, the Palette of King Narmer, has never been allowed to leave Egypt. It’s high quality of craftsmanship make it invaluable.

A Beautiful Form

The large work is more than two feet in height and beautifully carved, from greywacke siltstone in a grey-green color. King Narmer is depicted within the low relief carving, as well as other symbols, with debatable meanings. The work measures 25 by 16 inches.

The elaborate scenes are depicted in low relief sculpture, set in registers or horizontal zones. The images offer a twisted perspective and a delineation of musculature.

On the Front

On the front Narmer wears a cobra crown of Lower Egypt. The Hathor or cow goddess is at the top. Narmer is proceeded by four standard bearers and a priest, followed by a sandal bearer. The serpopards, a cross between a serpent and leopard symbolizes the unification of Egypt. At the bottom, Narmer is a bull knocking down city fortress.

On the Back

On the back, Hathor as a cow is still along the top register. Hawk is the god Horus, holding a rope around a decapitated man’s head. Narmer has symbols of strength, with a bull’s tail at his waist, and wears the white crown of Upper Egypt. This crown is a symbol of dazzling brilliance of midday sun and nocturnal light of stars and moon. Servant holds sandals. Narmer is the king/god who walks barefoot. Defeated are enemies below his feet.

Palette of King Narmer, back
© Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY

The Purpose

The work was dedicated to Horus.

In Daily Use

In general, palettes were part of everyday life. The function was to grind makeup and to mix eyeliner. This black substance was ringed around the eyes to prevent the glare from the sun. A method used long before sunglasses were invented!

The design of a palette could be simple or elaborate depending on who owned it or a hierarchy of scale.

Historical Backgrounder

Discovered at the site of Hierakonpolis, the capital of Egypt during the time, in an early temple of the falcon god Horus, the object was found ivory statues, knife handles, figurines of animals and stone vessels. It was customary to keep objects that had been dedicated to the gods and bury them to make way for new offerings.

This work gives evidence of a sophisticated civilization along the Nile appearing around 3,500 BCE and the unification of Egypt (Upper – southern; Lower – northern) which was critical to future Egyptian success.

(2) 14. Statues of votive figures from the Square Temple of Eshnunna.

Sumerian. 2,700 BCE. Mesopotamian (Sumerian)

Statues of votive figures
© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian religious offerings

Themes:

Offerings
Religion
Status

Museum: Metropolitan Museum of Art

Found in Tell Azmar, Iraq, Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna were crafted from gypsum, inlaid, or embedded, with shell and black limestone. The tallest stands at 2 feet 6 inches.

The Use of Votive Offerings

The function of votive figures was to replicate the donor, in an act of prayer to the gods. This would represent prayer 24 hours a day, as the gods were temperamental.

These would have been placed in the temple of the god Abu, the god of vegetation, facing a statue or alter of a god. These sculptures were represented on a hierarchy of scale, in that a wealthier person would have a much larger sculpture.

A Closer Look

The eyes are wide, as if in awe. Men are depicted with bare chest and arms, while woman were fully clothed for modesty. On the backs of the sculptures are the words “ it offers prayer”.

What was Animism?

The religion in Mesotamia was Animism, a belief that natural forces were controlled by the gods. There was a god of rain, a god of water and many more. They also believed these gods were easily angered.

(2) 15. Seated Scribe

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^th Dynasty). 2,620-2,500 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom)

Seated scribe
© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Egyptian non-royal sculpture

Themes:

Status
Funerary

Museum: Louvre Museum

This work was found in Saqqarra, an important Old Kingdom, southwest of Cairo, Egypt.

Seated Scribe, a 20-inch tall, lifelike, sculpture in the round. This representation of a scribe, seated, with legs crossed, is wearing a white kilt. The medium is limestone that has been painted. Yet, the nipples are made with wooden dowels.

The Details

The eyes are made to look real, which becomes the focus of the work. Made with polished crystal, blue organic matters were added behind to keep the stone in place. It also acts as a colour for the iris. There is an indentation representing the pupil. The eyes are etched with black eyeliner, as was the fashion of the time.

The artists took great care in carving the work, as scribes were considered an essential part of the community. They were the only ones who could write and therefore record history. His hands are beautifully crafted, and each nail is precise. In one hand there is a rolled piece of papyrus. In the other, there would have been a writing instrument that is no longer part of the work.

The focus is on the front of the sculpture, yet that is irrelevant, as it was made as a funerary sculpture.

The way that the scribe is depicted in a natural way, with body fat exposed, is much different than gods were portrayed. Gods were formed in a much more stylistic way.

The Ka Statue

The Ka is a human soul. Upon death, for the ka to live on, it must imbed itself in something.

Mummification was ideal but prohibitively expensive for most people. The ka statue had to be a good likeness, so the ka could find it. Most Egyptians could not afford ka statues either.

**(2) 16. Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur.**

Sumerian. 2,600 – 2,400 BCE. Mesopotamian (Sumerian).

Standard of Ur, Peace
© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian utilitarian object

Theme:

Rulers
War
Status
Power
Violence
Cross-cultural
Community
Duality
Trade
Funerary
Mesopotamian utilitarian object
Utilitarian

Museum: British Museum

The Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur, was found in Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq, in what appeared to be a tomb of a soldier. A standard is something brought to war, hence the name.

The wooden box, measuring 8.5 inches tall by 19.5 inches wide is decorated with white shells, (from the Persian Gulf) lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan) and red limestone (from India). This is both a symbol of the wealth of Mesopotamian (Sumerian) groups and cross-cultural trade.

It is not clear what the box held. Some historians think it could have been used for a musical instrument or for a coin box.

This double-sided artwork shows three registers, depicted three segments of society. It’s a historical narrative about war and peace.

Peace

At the bottom, the working-class hull heavy loads with the help of animals. In the centre register, the wealthier members of society walk with herds of animals, such sheep, rams, and goats.

At the top are the elite. The king is depicted as the largest figure, seated on a throne. Other members of the king’s group are also seated. All are raising glasses. Servants are depicted as smaller figures. Entertainers are entering to the far right.

Standard of Ur, War
© Eileen Tweedy/The Art Archive at Art Resource, N

War

At the top, the Sumerian king has exited his chariot. He inspects his captives who are nude. This was a way of debasing people in Mesopotamia. The middle register illustrates the Sumerian army revealed through a line of soldiers. At the bottom, rather than seeing many chariots, we are seeing one chariot in continuous narrative. The horse moves from a walk to a canter to a gallop.

(2) 17. Great Pyramids and Great Sphinx

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^th Dynasty). 2,550-2,490 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom).

Great Pyramids with Sphinx
© Roger Wood/Corbis

Learning Objective: Egyptian funerary complex

Themes:

Rulers
Deities
Commemoration
Funerary
Power
Site specific
Architecture
Animals in art
Hybrid
Status
Religion
Place of worship

The Great Pyramids, in Giza, Egypt were built from cut limestone, for three rulers. There was Khufa, Khafre and Menkaure. Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary temple complex. Each pyramid was built to reflect the sun’s rays. The function was to enable the pharaoh to reach the sun in the afterlife. The complex included boats to assist with the journey.

Great Pyramids plan

Great Pyramid

The Great Pyramid, the largest of the three was built for Khufu. It took 23 years to build and is 481 feet tall and 750 feet at base length. It was constructed of 2.3 million blocks that ranged from 2.5 tons to 50 tons each.

The original outer casings were made of white limestones, to shine in the bright sunlight. At the top. There once was a gilded capstone known as a pyriamidion. This reflected light, causing the pyramid to be observed from a great distance. Today, only the inner stones remain. These were roughly constructed and filled with gypsum.

To enter the Great Pyramid, one must crawl through a tight opening before entering the Grand Gallery.

Additional Structures

Smaller pyramids were built for Queens. Additionally, small rectangular structures, with flat roofs and sloping side, known as mastabas or benches, in Arabic, were part of the complex. It was an honour to be buried close to the king and therefore there was a hierarchy as to who was buried where.

Great Sphinx

Great Sphinx was carved in situ, meaning on site from huge rock, set in the original setting. It was brightly painted and is the largest carving in the world from a single stone. Great Sphinx was crafted to protects pyramids behind it, in the manner of Lamassu.

Sphinx is the Greek word for a lion body, eagle wings, and a woman’s head. This is a hybrid animal with the head of the pharaoh, and the powerful body of lion. The lion is also a royal symbol connected to the pharaohs and the sun.

A Place of Worship

Every pyramid had an adjoining mortuary temple. It was a cult of deceased kings. The dead kings became pharaohs. Offerings were made, ceremonies performed, and cloth and food were stored here. Cult statues of pharaohs were placed inside to serve as a focus for worship.

(2) 18. King Menkaura and queen

Egyptian (Old Kingdom, 4^th Dynasty.) 2,490-2,472 BCE. Egyptian (Old Kingdom).

King Menkaura and queen
Photograph © 2013 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Learning Objective: Egyptian royal sculpture

Themes:

Rulers
Male/female relative
Ideal man
Ideal woman
Commemoration
Power
Devotional object

Museum: MFA in Boston

In 1910, a large collection of statuary was found in Valley Temple, connected to the Pyramid of Menkaure. This joint portrait statue is carved from a smooth grey stone known as greywacke and stands 4 feet 6 inches tall. It is subtractive or carved out of one block of stone.

Both the king and queen are facing forward, in this sculpture in the round. Both have one foot stepping forward, and the king’s head is turned to the right slightly, suggesting movement. They are lifelike but idealized and not realistic.

Perfecting Sculpture

Canon of proportion in this time was the ideal proportions of body. It was based on units. One unit was measured by the size of a closed fist. The heel to hairline is 18 units. The knees are five units up. The elbows are 12 up and the neck is 16 up.

A Woman of Mystery

The king is portrayed as young and lean, wearing the traditional white kilt and a pharaoh’s headdress called a nemes. Historians have suggested that because the queen is the same height as the king, and that her arms are around him in a protective way, that she is his mother and not one of his wives. Others says this could indicate her prominence or their marital status, and displays a strong, united Egypt.

The statue was not inscribed like others were. The face of King Menkaura is the same as others that were inscribed identifying him. Yet, the queen’s identity remains a mystery.

(2) 20. Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostle-Hall

Egyptian(New Kingdom, 18^th-19^th Dynasties). Temple: 1,550 BCE. Hall: 1,250 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Temple of Amun-Re
© Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbi

Learning Objective: Egyptian religious complex

Themes:

Religious complex
Religion
Place of worship
Deities
Status
Rulers
Architecture
Innovations

This temple in its massive form, made from cut sandstone and brick was the main religious center of the god Amun-Re, the sun god, located in Karnark, near Luxor, Egypt. It also held a precinct for the God Mut and Montu. One of the largest religious complexes in the world, it has a main temple of 61 acres.

The building has a pylon entrance, with two towers on a mountain, and the horizon coming up between the two.

The axial building has an elongated floor plan and is constructed from sandstone and mud brick. It has an open court or space open to the sky, supported by colonnades.

Early development started in the Middle Kingdom (2055- 1650 BCE) As the city of Thebes became more important, pharaohs began to add new developments. The main part would grow to include 20 temples, a working space for priests, kitchens, and a sacred lake.

Many of the stones used in construction were ripped down in ancient times. There are still notes of interest like the tallest obelisk in Egypt that was made from red granite. It was dedicated to a female pharaoh Hatshepsut who ruled during the New Kingdom.

Hypostyle Hall

A hypostyle hall is a space with a roof that gains its support through columns. It was the first hall in history and has 134 columns made from sandstone. Most of the columns are 22 feet high, except for the twelve columns in the centre measuring 62 feet tall. This allows for clerestory lighting or light to filter in from outside. Illumination before electricity!

Columns had smooth shafts, that were used to decorate and were brightly painted, with two different capitals, both bud and flower shaped. Columns in hypostyle hall represent the dense clusters of reeds of the Nile, decorated like lotus, papyrus, and palm plants. Statues of gods and kings stood amongst the hypostyle columns.

The hall has a corridor axis or central path that runs downs the temple. A rear sanctuary included a side room and central shrine.

More Interior Art with a Theme

Relief carvings occur all over the site. The theme carries the same message.

The pharaohs possessed divinely granted power to maintain order on earth.
The pharaohs were pious and dutiful worshippers of gods.

A Display of Status

Ordinary people could only go as far as the interior courtyard. They could not even get to hypostyle hall. Egyptian priests and royalty were the only ones who could go beyond.

Lightness and Darkness

The space becomes progressively darker moving from the courtyard, to shadowed hypostyle hall, to a darkened central shrine. This symbolized the belief that the deities reside in darkness. It was known to be both magical and mysterious.

Egyptian Beliefs

Egyptians believed that the gods became exhausted each year. This required fresh offerings. An annual festival lasting 27 days replenished the gods.

Temples were the gods’ home on earth. Visiting a temple was the equivalent of being in the home of the divine presence. Since the gods were alive, they were given food, drink, incense, and oils daily.

(2) 22. Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 18^th Dynasty, Amarna Period). 1,353-1,335 BCE. Egyptian (Amarna).

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters
© bpk, Berlin/Staatliche Museen/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Amarna Period art / departure from tradition

Themes:

Religion
Family
Text and image
Rulers
Domestic
Ideal man
Private
Male
Female relationships
Stylized bodies

Museum: Egyptian Museum in Berlin

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters is a sunken relief, limestone carving, that is one foot tall. This work of art would have been a private alter in a domestic home.

The pharaoh sits holding one of their daughters, with Queen Nefertiti beside him. Two of their daughters sit with her, with one of her left and the other on her right shoulder. It is a domestic scene of informality.

All have stylized swollen bellies, long thin arms, and elongated heads. A traditional composite view of the bodies show a twisted perspective. The children are nude with shaved heads which were the custom of the time.

Androgyny

The bodies exhibit an androgyny of indeterminate gender. Many historians believe Aton, or the sun, who they worshipped, was believed to be both male and female. If Akhenaton was the son of the sun, then he must be dominated by both genders as well. Hence the look of androgyny!

Thus, this new shift had to reflect the idea that Akhenaton was both genders and wanted to distinguish this new art from Egypt’s past.

The Chosen Couple

Above them the rays of God Aton shine down. A cobra is embedded in the sunshine symbolizing that Aton is the one true God. The sun’s rays end in ankhs, that give the king and queen the breath of life. The queen’s throne is decorated with lotus flowers, which symbolizes the unification of Egypt. Hieroglyphics on the top and around the figures explain the worship to Aton.

Backgrounder

This work signifies a style break in art, as Egyptian pharaoh, Akhenaten, who ruled from 1353- 1336 BCE changed the religion and started to worship God Aten.

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV abandoned the worship of the Egyptian gods in favor of Aton, whom he declared to be universal and only god, identified with the sun. He changed his name to be Akhenaton (“Aton is pleased”). He had the names and images of other gods from temples defaced.

There were no priests in this new religion. Akhenaton was Aten’s son and his representative on earth.

**(2) 24. Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer from The Book of the Dead.**

Egyptian (New Kingdom, 19^th Dynasty). 1,275 BCE. Egyptian (New Kingdom).

Last judgment of Hu-Nefer © The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource, NY

Theme:

Funerary
Text and image
Deities
Afterlife
Religion
Status
Human and divine

Museum: British Museum

This work painted on papyrus scroll is from the Book of the Dead. It was found inside Hu-Nefer’s tomb and measures 11 by 17 inches.

Reading this Work

It reads from left to right and functioned as a type of witness statement to the character of the deceased. Originally, it was placed only in the tomb of dead kings, but later those of high rank were also included. In this case, it was for a scribe, that because of the profession’s talent in writing, were given a priestly status.

It depicts a scene of judgement complete with text and pictorial images. Only those with good ethics were deemed worthy to go into the afterlife. These images include gods and deities, and symbols of the afterlife such as lotus flowers and anks. There is a formality of stance, with traditional shaped bodies, and a twisted perspective. The text functions around the images and acts as a caption explaining the theme.

Created for Hu-Nefer

This work was created especially for the patron Hu-Neufer, who was a royal scribe to Seti. He holds the hand of Anubis, the god of embalming, with a jackal’s head, who leads him into a hall where his hands are being weighed against a feather. If his soul is heavier than a feather, he would be sent to the underworld. Here Ammit, the hippo/lion/crocodile eats the soul of the dead.

The god Thoth, with the head of an ibis bird, records who gets to move forward in the book of life. The god Horus, with the head of a falcon, presents Hu-Nefer to Osiris, the god of the underworld, who is enthroned on the right. At the top, Hu-Nefer pleads his case to 42 judges. This is artistically simplified to 14.

(2) 25. Lamassu from the Citadel of Sargon II

Neo-Assyrian. 720-705 BCE. Mesopotamian (Assyrian)

Learning Objective: Mesopotamian guardians

Themes:

Hybrid
Protection
Guardian
Entryway
Animals in art
Architecture
Man vs. nature.
Power
Rulers

Museum: Metropolitan Museum. New York

These winged bulls, with heads of men, known as lamassu, were each carved from one alabaster stone. These massive sculptures, each 10 to 14 feet tall were guardian figures at the citadel fortress protecting the town, Dur Sharrukin, in what is now modern Khorsabad, Iraq.

These works were an expression of grandeur by Sargon II, meant to ward off enemies, both real and invisible or apotropaic. The huge palace complex had 200 rooms with 30 different courtyards. Much of the artwork inside showed narrative scenes of Sargon in warfare and hunts.

Details of the Lamassu

The highly decorative lamassu were made to be viewed both from the front and from the side. Parts are carved in high relief and parts in low relief.

The crown upon the head of each lamassu contains rosettes and double horns, along with a ring of feathers along the top. The human face contains a unibrow. The wavy hair and beard form ringlets and spirals. The only part of the face that is not human are the ears. These are the ears of a bull, with earrings that dangle down.

Under the body and around the legs are inscriptions in cuneiform, one of the first forms of writing in the world. This declares the power of the king and threatens anyone who fails to acknowledge this.

The legs are a trick to the eye. There are five legs per sculpture. Viewed from the front there are only two, as if the creature is standing guard. There are four when you enter, as if the animal moves to let you in!

(2) 26. Athenian Agora

Greek. Plan. 600 BCE- 150 CE. Archaic through Hellenistic.

Learning Objective: Greek civic center

Themes:

Civic
Community
Architecture
Religion
Public

The Athenian Agora, located in Athens, Greece, was a public space, in a flat low area, with a rocky Acropolis nearby. It was traversed by an ancient roadway called Panathenaic way and held various purposes making it the most important space, in Athens at that time. It was used for dramatic performances, cultural or religious events. Through evidence of shops and pieces of pottery, bronzeware and sculptor found at the site, it was also used as a market.

There was also a council’s chamber, magistrate’s office, mint, and archive. The Athenian agora where public elections were had and a place of experimentation in Athenian democracy.

Panathenaic Procession

Most buildings were “outlined” with stoas. This was a covered walkway or portico, typically with Doric order. It helped to define the edges of the building and were used as a framing device.

Agora was the main site of a festival, held every four years, called the Panathenaic Procession to honor the goddess, Athena. Processions marched across the Agora at a diagonal and culminated on the Acropolis. The culmination of the ceremony was a new woven peplos (robe) that was sewn for Athena’s cult statue, in the Parthenon.

Persian Destruction of Athens

In 480 BCE, the Persians destroyed Athens. Building had to be rebuilt or reconstructed. Many more were added to accommodate the Athenian democracy.

(2) 28. Peplos Kore

Greek. 530 BCE. Archaic Greek

Peplos Kore © Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Archaic female sculpture

Themes:

Ideal Woman
Deity
Offering
Religion
Community

Museum: Acropolis Museum, Athens

A peplos is a Greek costume that is made from a rectangular cloth that is pinned at the shoulders. A kore is a clothed female figure. This work is four feet tall and made from marble that was once painted. It was found at the Acropolis, in Athens, Greece.

The work has similar characteristics to other archaic kores. There is the archaic smile that signifies well-being and considered transcendent. It is immobile, with arms by the side.

Her clothing is different than other similar figures that were left as offerings to the goddess Athena, at the Acropolis. Under special light, one can detect painting and patterns on her costume. There were patterns of small animals painted vertically down the center of her dress.

Is Peplos Kore Really Artemis?

Upon further inspection there has been conjecture that the figure is not a simple woman but the goddess Artemis. The goddess that was later called Diana, by the Romans and was known as the goddess of the hunt.

There has been speculation that she was once carrying a crossbow, as her left arm is bent at the elbow. The right hand is closed in a fist, that may have held an arrow.

This sculpture, goddess or not, is considered one of the best examples of sculpture from the archaic period.

(2) 29.Sarcophagus of the Spouses

Etruscan. 520 BCE. Etruscan.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses
© Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Etruscan funerary sculpture

Themes:

Male/female relationships
Funerary
Status

Museum: Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome

This masterwork is an anthropoid, or human-shaped painted terracotta sarcophagus found in the ancient Etruscan city of Caere now Cerveteri, Italy. It measures 6 feet 7 inches in length.

Purpose for Creation

This was a sarcophagus for a married couple. The ashes were placed inside. The size of the sarcophagus was a symbol of status.

Depiction and Symbolism

In the Sarcophagus of the Spouses a couple reclines on a dining couch, eating and drinking. This was how funerals were ritualized in Etruscan society. A funeral banquet, including male and female guests, was the way of sending the deceased off to the afterlife.

Both the man and woman in the artwork hold objects that were related to a banquet. A pomegranate was the symbol of eternal life or an egg, the symbol of regeneration.

Artistic Efforts

The Caertan sarcophagus took a great deal of time to create this detailed piece. The rounded faces, have archaic smiles, and hairstyles that are Greek in nature. The angular composition of the bodies however was a Estruscan. Looking closely, you will notice the soft cap on the woman’s head, along with the pointed shoes.

The great size meant that it needed to be fired multiple times.

Women in Society

This piece reflects the high standing of women in Etruscan society. Women were not allowed to dine with men in Ancient Greece.

Historical Background

While the work would have originally included the cremated remains of the deceased, the remains of the individuals is unknown. Historians agree that it belonged to members of the elite.

(2) 32. Tomb of the Triclinium

480-470 BCE. Etruscan.

Learning Objective: Etruscan funerary complex

Themes:

Funerary
Afterlife
Architecture

This Etruscan chamber tomb dates to 470 BCE and is in the necropolis of Tarquinia, Italy known in ancient times as Tarquinii or Tarch(u)na). The subterranean rock cut tomb, cut out of local tufa was made for both the deceased and grave goods.

Tumulus were large burial mounds in Etruscan architecture that were part of necropolis Sometimes they reached colossal sizes of over 130 feet across.

The Fresco

The fresco decorated wall have a focus the banquet scene in the center. Figures are reclining on dining couches or klinai. The guests are dressed in colourful robes and being waited on by attendants. There are birds in the artwork and a cat. The left and right walls depict dancing and musicians. The ceiling is also painted in a checkerboard pattern, depicting the tents that were temporarily erected for these events.

Note the skin colorations which were typical of the time in Etruscan art. The women have white skin, while the men have orange brown.

Historical Background

The Etruscans did not leave written records, so most of our knowledge comes from tombs and depictions of their lives. Funerals were seen as a transition from one realm to the next. These were not sorrowful affairs, but festive.

(2) 33. Niobides Krater

Niobid Painter. Greek. 460 BCE. Greek (Classical)

Niobides Krater
© RMN-Grand Palais/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Greek vase

Themes:

Deities
Utilitarian
Violence
War
Status
Family
Victory
Decorative arts

Museum: Louvre, Paris

The Niobides Krater, is by the artist known only as the Niobid Painter. This is a clay work. Using red- figure technique with white highlights. It stands two feet tall and was found in necropolis Crucfissio Del Tufo in Orvieto, Italy.

What is a Calyx-krater?

A Calyx-krater is a punch bowl, with two handles on the side. It was used to mix the overly strong wine with water. It is classified within the decorative arts, meaning it is both beautiful and functional. Greek vases are described using human anatomical parts. You will hear phrases to describe vases such as wide mouth, handles on the base of the body, or wide foot.

A Closer Look at the Images

On one side of the Greek vase, directly in the centre of the krater is the god Hercules, who is identifiable by the club and lion skin he carries. Around him are warriors, looking for his blessing before leaving for battle. (Image shown above)

On the back on the krater is the story of the mortal Niobe. She bragged that her seven daughters and seven sons were more beautiful than the those of the goddess Letos. The goddess’ two children, Apollo, the god of arts and music, as well as Artemis, the goddess of the hunt extract revenge on the children by shooting and killing them with bows and arrows.

Although the artist may have been aiming for a sense of depth by depicting the figures at various height, but all are the same size. The figures are also very stiff and unnatural, as was the style of the time.

Context

Niobides Krater was found in an Etruscan tomb. The Etruscans were Grecophiles. Greek vases were tremendously popular, with many designs and functions available. The more decorative, the greater the expense.

(2) 36. Grave stele of Hegeso Kallimachos

Greek. 410 BC. Greek (High Classical)

Grave stele of Hegeso
© Nimatallah/Art Resource, NY

Learning Objective: Classical Greek funerary sculpture

Themes:

Funerary
Domestic
Ideal women
Status
Commemoration
Portrait
Private
Male-female relationships

Museum: Archaeological Museum, Athens

This marble and paint stele, at 5 feet tall, was crafted to represent the life of a wealthy woman named Hegeso. She is seated on a chair, as her servant presents her with an opened box of jewelry. What the piece was is unclear, as it was painted into Hegeso’s hands and not carved. The image has long since disappeared.

The gown she is wearing is tight against her figure, as the fabric, swirls, and drapes intricately, given the artist the ability to show a mastery of skills. Gentle scenes such as this one were often selected to show the refinery of the woman who had passed away.

History

During the Greek Archaic period, kouros and kore were used as grave markers. Later all efforts were put into great public buildings like the Pantheon. During the fifth century BCE a grave stele or marker started to gain popularity.

This is a good example of private sculpture and not part of a state commission like Parthenon. It illustrates the greater statue of free-born women, with a servants and jewelry. Yet, this was still a restrictive life. Women’s sphere was in the home, hence the domestic setting.

Women were not considered citizens and were defined by their relationships to men. Who they were the daughter of or wife of was of great importance.

(2) 38. Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon

Greek. 175 BCE. Greek (Hellenistic)

Learning Objective: Hellenistic religious complex

Themes:

Religious complex
Deities
Politics
Architecture
Commemoration
War
Ceremony
Victory

Museum: Pergamon Museum, Berlin

This marble work was built on the Pergamon acropolis, 800 feet above the city below and about 20 miles from the coast. It was once part of Greece, but today is Turkey. A panorama of nature was a dramatic background to the action in the altar that measures 117 by 109 feet.

Pergamon was the capital of Attalid Kingdom (Asia Minor). This was one of the four breakup kingdoms from Alexander the Great’s large empire. Today, it is part of Turkey.

The Architecture

The temple was an enclosed courtyard with two sides extending out into arms, with an iconic colonnade. It also has acroteria or sculptures in the round placed on a roof. A frieze measuring 7 and a half feet high over 400 feet long wraps around the entire monument. The temple was on a massive podium with a large flight of stairs, verticality toward the heavens.

Surrounding it was a great library, a garrison for soldiers and a royal palace for the king. Of course, a fire would have been lit in the centre for the gods.

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena
© bpk, Berlin/Antikensammlung, Staatliche Museen/Photo © Juergen Liepe/ Art Resource, NY

The Depictions

This alter carved from marble is a depiction of Greek Olympian gods versus the monstrous offspring of primordial gods Gaia, the earth goddess, and Uranos, the sky god, for world domination.

On one panel, the goddess Athena is in the centre. She is battling Alcyoneos, hand grasping his hair, while one of her snake attacks. At the same time, she is being crowned by winged Nike. Gaia, emerges from the ground to plead for the life of her son.

On another panel Zeus is depicted with a strong chest, abdominal muscles, and arms as he battles other giants. He has the help of his eagles and thunderbolts.

The gods drag them, literally, up the actual physical stairs to show that they will be made to worship to Zeus. Sculptural elements protract outward and use each stair as resting places.

In Detail

Hellenistic art began after the death of Alexander the Great. The Hellenistic qualities of this work includes energy; dynamism; movement; emotion; height of the narrative. Hellenistic sculpture rejects the rationalism of the Classical era, but retains the idealism of the Classical era, characterized by exaggerated forms, dynamic poses, emotional drama. This is a high relief frieze, with deeply carved figures, that creates shadows and bursts of light. There are over 100 figures, all of which would have been vividly painted.

Function

This work built by Eumenes II, commemorating the defeat of invading Gauls, led by King Attalos in 3^rd century BCE. It is dedicated to and honors Zeus.

It also has parelells to Pergamon victories over the Barbarians (Gauls) in 3^rd century BCE, as well as Alexander the Great’s defeat of the Persians.

This made a clear statement about Greek victories not only against other culture, but of the unknown. It also established a patriarchal culture with Zeus winning over Gaia.

Animals were sacrificed inside the main temple complex on feast days/festivals.

Today

Altar was removed from Pergamon in the 19^th century by a German archaeologist. It was then reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum, in Berlin

(2) 40. Alexander Mosaic

Roman Republic. 100 BCE. Roman copy of the Greek painting 315 BCE. Roman Republic

Alexander Mosaic
© Araldo de Luca/Corbis

Learning Objective: Roman mosaic

Themes:

War
Victory
Rulers
Power
Violence
Status
Cross-cultural
Politics

Museum: Archaeological Museum in Naples

This mosaic made from over a million and a half tiny pieces of glass and stone, known as tesserae . The work measures 8 feet 11 inches by 16 feet 9 inches exhibits a naturalistic style. It exhibits radical foreshortening, or extension perpendicular to the picture plane, into the deep, painted space. Figures are not stacked but turned into picture plane. The tesserae show modeling, or use of light and dark to create shadow, which conveys a roundness of form.

Made for Home

The work was found between two courtyards in the most extravagant mansion, called House of Faun, in Pompei. It was preserved in the ash of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvious.

This floor was the first thing a visitor would see upon entering the foyer of the home.

Setting the Scene

In the Alexander mosaic a fearful Darius on the left has just told his soldier to flee. He has spun his chariot around, well his soldiers have yet to lower their spears to the Greeks. Many Persians are wounded. One on the ground sees his own reflection in his armour before he starts to die.

On the right Alexander remains triumphant. In his time, the great leader managed not only to unify Greece, but also moved into parts of Egypt, east into Persia and into Induus Valley.